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4.08.5.4 Pesticides manhwa

Pesticides are chemicals used to control or eliminate weeds, plant diseases, or unwanted insects in agricultural, residential, or recreational areas. When applied to fields or lawns, they can leach into groundwater and be transported to estuaries and coastal waters via SGD. A 10-year-long, nationwide study by the United States Geological Survey (Gilliom, 2007) detected pesticides in over 50% of shallow wells in urban and agricultural areas, and many studies (e.g., do Nascimento et al., 2004; Almasri, 2008; Anderson et al., 2010) have reported elevated pesticide concentrations in coastal groundwater. Although SGD-related transport of pesticides into coastal waters is clearly possible, few studies have reported pesticide concentrations in discharging groundwater or SGD-related pesticide fluxes. One study (Gallagher et al., 1996) reported alachlor, atrazine, cyanazine, and metolachlor concentrations of 0.05–0.5 μg l−1 in groundwater discharging into the southern Chesapeake Bay.

Tools for the Study of Marine Ecology

Oceans are highways of commerce for international trade, providing food, contributing to our energy supply (oil and gas), and serving as recreational areas. The health of our ocean ecosystems is threatened by overfishing and unintended bycatch, pollution, habitat loss, boating traffic, and climate change. This threat comes from a number of human activities: conversion of coastal habitats for other uses, nonpoint pollution, airborne pollution, waterborne diseases, marine debris, ballast water, and invasive species, among others. Some of the tools of marine biotechnology have helped with ongoing monitoring to assess the health of ocean and coastal ecosystems to guide management in decisions on the use of oceans and coastal waters and establishment of standard practices and procedures.

Multiple means are used to collect the desired information: aircraft, ships, moored instruments, drifters, gliders, submersibles, remotely operated vehicle (ROV), and satellites. The satellite communications infrastructure provides global broadband coverage to support ocean observations. Monitoring stations and buoys collect and transmit continuous data streams on climate, weather, air quality, temperature, surface pressure, ocean dynamics, and other selected variables. The Integrated Ocean Observing System (IOOS) and Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) integrate the collected data.

Additional sensors are being developed to monitor marine ecology. Optical and sonic probes are used to count populations of marine organisms. Quantification of plant and animal biodiversity can be a useful approach to follow the health of the habitat. Molecular techniques used to measure marine microbial diversity should be modified as marine sensors to detect marine pathogens and toxins. Sensors to measure marine pollutants should be expanded. Major challenges are collection, storage, and assimilation of the large volume of data as well as the ability to provide these data rapidly to the user community. Recent developments in molecular biology, ecology, and environmental engineering now offer opportunities to modify organisms so that their basic biological processes are more efficient and can degrade more complex chemicals and higher volumes of waste materials.

Introduction

Weather has influenced human livelihoods and migrations for thousands of years. This influence may have contributed to some humans trying to understand, forecast, or change the weather on a local to global scale. Ad interim, human activities may inadvertently affect the weather, and other spheres, i.e., biosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere including coastal and ocean waters. The human affected processes may in-turn affect the weather further complicating the relation between humans and the weather. The purpose of this module is to provide a high level perspective of inadvertent weather modification (e.g., Changnon, 2003; AMS, 2010; WMO, 2016), or of the effects on weather resulting from human activities conducted for purposes other than changing or modifying weather and even climate. That said, any activities conceptually designed, or otherwise purposely pursued, for the intentional modification of our climate, including geoengineering and climate engineering (e.g., Hess, 1974; Cotton, 2008), and those activities associated with cloud seeding (e.g., Hess, 1974; Sax et al., 1975; Dennis, 1980; Warburton et al., 1995a,b; Warburton et al., 1996; ANSI/ASCE/EWRI, 2013; DeFelice et al., 2014; ANSI/ASCE/EWRI, 2015; Keyes et al., 2016; ANSI/ASCE/EWRI, 2017; DeFelice and Axisa, 2017) are not inadvertent weather modification activities. Although, Changnon et al. (1977) does mention the possibility that cloud seeding activities might inadvertently effect weather. Cloud seeding technologies could be developed to enhance solar energy production (DeFelice, 2018), and to minimize some of the effects from inadvertent weather modifying human activities, such as reduced precipitation process efficiency from air pollution, for example.

Humans interact with the geosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and atmosphere as we

(i)

create, manage and maintain cities, transportation infrastructure, recreational areas,

(ii)

manage and utilize natural resources,

(iii)

manufacture products and

(iv)

manage waste

to accommodate our activities through our individual life cycles. The most common interactions and their effects have been illustrated by those tied to major metropolitan areas and their development, as well as to air pollution. The inadvertent weather impact from major cities is generally localized, intermittent and occurs on scales ranging from about 1 km2 up to about 10,000 km2 (Changnon, 2015). Understanding these affects or impacts requires that we understand the natural or actual variances of the variables effected. This is not always possible nor practical given the complexity of the inherent natural processes, lack of adequate technologies, logistics to make the measurements or cost, for example. For these reasons, it has been deemed more practical to typically use models, simplifying assumptions, and/or lower grade or dependent variable measurements to gain insights into what we inevitably rationalize as a best available understanding.

The shortest spatial scale in the range a-priori specified by Changnon (2015) implies the need to, at the very least, use technologies capable of making measurements at sub-1 km2 scales, or at the equivalent temporal scales, to adequately reproduce the 'true' or actual measured fields (e.g., DeFelice, 1998). Some atmospheric state parameters and processes, including precipitation amount and aerosol population parameters, can vary on the order of micro-scales (i.e., << 1 km) or equivalent temporal scales (i.e., sub-seconds to minutes). Soil moisture and land cover attributes can also vary on the order of micro-scales, for example. Relevant, representative or actual measurements are vital for;

(i)

improving the science and engineering comprehension,

(ii)

developing more robust, accurate forecast, assessment and support models,

(iii)

supporting mitigation strategy and policy development

of inadvertent weather modification and its impacts (e.g., AMS, 2010).

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INNOVATIVE RESPONSES TO CHALLENGES: REDEVELOPMENT OF COS COB BROWNFIELDS SITE, CONNECTICUT, USA

Cynde Sears, in Environmental Geochemistry, 2008

1. INTRODUCTION

This case study examines the efforts of the Town of Greenwich, Connecticut, to clean up a large, environmentally contaminated brownfield and to return it to beneficial use as a recreational area. In the United States, "brownfields" are defined under Federal statute as "real property, the expansion, development, or reuse of which may be complicated by the presence or potential presence of a hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant" (US Congress, 2002). The Cos Cob brownfield is on the site of a former coal-fired power plant. Past practices for the disposal of ash from the power plant, combined with accidental releases of electric transformer fluids, contributed to widespread contamination across the nine-acre (3.6 hectares) site. Multiple environmental investigations revealed that several contaminants present in soils at the site—including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), arsenic, and a range of petroleum hydrocarbons—were high enough to pose a risk to human health and the environment. The contamination posed a series of financial and technical challenges for the Town of Greenwich, which wanted to redevelop the site for beneficial use.

This case study will highlight a variety of technical, financial, and regulatory challenges the Town of Greenwich faced in more than a decade of planning for activities at the brownfield site, many of which are common to other sites across the country. It will also discuss a variety of innovative and creative steps the Town of Greenwich, the State of Connecticut, and the Federal government have taken to support brownfields redevelopment. These steps have helped this site to transition from a brownfield to a community asset that will benefit residents of the Town of Greenwich as well as other Connecticut citizens.

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Forest Harvesting Systems

Donald L. Grebner, ... Jacek P. Siry, in Introduction to Forestry and Natural Resources, 2013

12.6 Safety

Not only is safety a major concern of forest users, it is also of importance for those who visit forests for other (e.g., recreational) purposes. For example, forest roads provide access to recreational areas and to NTFP collection areas. With respect to the development of forest roads, important considerations in developing and maintaining a safe road system include the road grade, roadside clearance, guardrails, lighting, and surface maintenance. Safety, of course, is a major concern in forest harvesting and road building operations. A number of standards have been developed by local, regional, and national organizations to govern the conditions to which workers are exposed while participating in these activities. Further, standards and protocols have been designed to promote the safe development of resources that will be used by forest workers and the general public. For example, the US Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration has developed a standard (1910.266) that establishes safety practices for logging practices. Training, supervision, the use of safe practices, and the use of safety equipment all contribute to a safer work environment (Pearson 1984). In at least two studies (Thelin 2002, Neely and Wilhelmson 2006) half or more of the accidents among forest workers were due to the inability of workers to follow established safety rules or safety gear recommendations.

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Forest Recreation

Donald L. Grebner, ... Jacek P. Siry, in Introduction to Forestry and Natural Resources, 2013

7.5.4 Communications

Communication involves a set of methods and tactics for presenting forest recreational opportunities to the public in order to encourage their participation (Douglass 2000). However, the ability to understand language on signs posted at recreational areas has been noted as a constraint among older people and minorities in the United States (Green et al. 2009). Communicating with ethnic groups using their native language, for example, can be an effective approach for promoting forest recreational opportunities (Winter et al. 2004). Before the advent of the Internet, television, newspapers, bulletins, magazines, journals, books, mailing lists, bulletin boards, fliers, and a wide range of paper-based products were used to advertise forest recreational opportunities. Other routes included old standbys such as personal experiences passed down by generations, word of mouth recommendations from friends and acquaintances, radio programs, or telephone conversations. The advent of the Internet now allows many people to access material promoting forest recreational opportunities in a much less costly and more expedient manner. Prior to the creation of the Internet, learning of whitewater rafting opportunities available in New Zealand or Costa Rica would have been relatively costly, from both a time and money perspective, for a person living in Omaha, Nebraska, for example, than for a person living in New Zealand or Costa Rica. In addition, the Internet allows interested individuals to simultaneously view text and video descriptions of potentially exciting new recreational opportunities. The development of new technologies, such as smartphones, also allows people the opportunity to not only communicate orally but also to view information from the Internet and to perhaps navigate through the landscape using built-in global positioning system technology.

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Forest Measurements and Forestry-Related Data

Donald L. Grebner, ... Jacek P. Siry, in Introduction to Forestry and Natural Resources, 2013

8.2.5 Recreation-Related Resources

Recreation-related resources are often measured using human activity participation rates or assessments of costs and benefits incurred per recreational visitor day. These are measures of recreation demand; the former involve sampling participation in activities, while the latter involve the analysis of travel costs and perhaps the willingness of recreationists to pay for these opportunities. Surveys of recreationists (Figure 8.19) can be done at the site of the activity or through printed or online survey questionnaires. Measurements of recreation supply, like timber supply, have focused on resource inventories at specific locations, but now involve spatial analyses of opportunities that can be provided across the landscape, using models such as the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (Garber-Yonts 2005).

FIGURE 8.19. US National Park Service employees conducting a visitor use survey.

Photo courtesy of US Department of the Interior, National Park Service.

In managing recreational areas, it may be important to determine whether sites in which the areas are located are overused or underused by people, or whether the use of the areas is well balanced. If concerns arise, it may be necessary to evaluate and understand the possible causes of human behavior or factors affecting this situation. Measuring the carrying capacity of a recreational area is one aspect of this assessment. As mentioned in Chapter 7, carrying capacity, as it relates to recreation resources, is the maximum number of people that can be accommodated by a facility or location where a social benefit or enjoyment is provided. This implies that once the number of people exceeds the carrying capacity, the overall enjoyment of the recreational opportunity begins to decline. From a biological perspective, if the number of humans participating in a recreational opportunity exceeds the carrying capacity, then damage may occur to the land and vegetation and overall user satisfaction is likely to decline (Schwarz et al. 1976). Factors that affect carrying capacity include climate, the level of development of the recreational opportunity, proximity to other resources, and topography. Some measures that may be used to assess when the carrying capacity has been exceeded include conflicts among recreationists, complaints by recreationists, loss of or damage to vegetation, soil compaction or erosion, and changes in the quality of other resources in the area.

Natural resource managers may also measure the usage of recreational areas and then calculate the economic impacts and benefits of the use to determine the efficiency and effectiveness of the recreational opportunities provided. Recreational area efficiency and effectiveness are important factors when land managers are considering how to allocate resources to the development of specific projects. Efficiency measures can be based on how well resources (funds, time, people, etc.) have been used for meeting the needs of recreational users. A benefit-cost analysis may be used to compare the outputs generated with the inputs required to offer the recreational opportunity (Lawrence and Titre 1984). Ideally, we want to provide an opportunity using the lowest input cost per unit of output or recreational experience, as measured by the cost of providing one recreational day of use, for example. This should not imply that recreational opportunities will be provided at the lowest cost, but that the resources available (i.e., people, time, and funds) are used wisely to develop the best suite of experiences for potential recreationists. Recreational effectiveness relates to the overall goals of the recreational program of an organization and how well the opportunities provided meet these goals. An assessment of visitor satisfaction might be one method employed to assess the effectiveness of a recreational program.

The aesthetic quality of a recreational area can be assessed with the assistance of forest resource information. Further, the attractiveness of an area may be related to vegetation diversity and the presence of older trees (Jaakko Pöyry Consulting, Inc. 1993). For example, Brown and Daniel (1986) developed scenic beauty relationships that are a function of forest measurements. The relationships basically indicate that scenic beauty increases as both the amount of vegetation and the size of trees increase. An example of such relationships is:

Scenic beauty estimate=−32.47+4.70×(number of largeponderosa pine sawtimber per ac)+0.38×(herbage weight per ac)

Like any other model (e.g., a wildlife habitat model), some variation may not be explained by the variables employed in a human's (or animal's) response to the environment. However, these types of models can still be useful for estimating the effects of management activities on the aesthetic quality of the landscape.

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Sustainable Drainage System Model

Miklas Scholz, in Wetlands for Water Pollution Control (Second Edition), 2016

30.1.4 SuDS in Edinburgh

In 2004, construction projects in Edinburgh's outskirts were dominated by greenfield site development activities. City regeneration projects were predominantly restricted to brownfield sites. Current and proposed building projects within the city boundary were the City Centre, the Granton Waterfront, Edinburgh Park, South Gyle, and Sighthill. These areas were designated to become commercial or high-density residential developments.

Within the city, there are designated recreational areas that can be used to drain runoff after SuDS implementation. This process of utilizing recreational space is a less controversial form of SuDS retrofitting. As development and regeneration activities increase, the amount of impermeable surfaces also increases. It follows that there is a pressing need to use SuDS techniques to control runoff by ground infiltration or storage, which has beneficial impacts on downstream catchments (City of Edinburgh Council, 1999).

Flooding within the city of Edinburgh is mostly caused by rainfall in the upper river catchment areas, which lie outside the boundaries of the city. Recent flooding has occurred predominantly in the following catchments and localities: River Almond and Gogar Burn; Ferry Burn; South Queensferry; Linn Mill Burn; Braid Burn and Figgate Burn; Burdiehouse, Niddrie, and Brunstane Burn (City of Edinburgh Council, 1999).

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WSUD "Best in Class"—Case Studies From Australia, New Zealand, United States, Europe, and Asia

Stephen Cook, ... Qian Yu, in Approaches to Water Sensitive Urban Design, 2019

27.2.1.1 Overview

Long Bay is situated 30 kms north of the Auckland Central Business District on the northeast coast of New Zealand (Fig. 27.1). The Long Bay development (Fig. 27.2), scheduled to construct over 2500 houses and accommodate around 6000 people, implements many WSUD principles and methods. The primary focus has been on minimizing the impacts of urbanization on the receiving water and optimizing stream corridor linkage to existing downstream parks, while contributing to solving Auckland's housing shortage. The receiving waters include the Long Bay—Okura Marine Reserve and recreational areas that attract up to 25,000 visitors in a day. Most of the land within the development area is within the 2.5-km long Vaughans Stream catchment (360 ha) with a minor proportion in the lower catchment of the adjacent Awaruku Stream. This is a greenfield residential development with a minor commercial center. Housing densities range from large lot residential (>2500 m2) in the catchment headwaters to low and medium-density urban in the mid-catchment and apartments in the village center located in the lower catchment. Stakeholders include the community-based Great Park Society, other Long Bay residents, Auckland Council (local government that provides plan and policy directives, grants consents, and owns and manages the adjoining Regional Park), Todd Property Group (developer), house construction companies, the Auckland public, the Department of Conservation (for management of the Marine Reserve), Long Bay College, and Long Bay Primary School.

Catalysis Today

Volume 41, Issues 1–3, 28 May 1998, Pages 207-219

Surface area and pore texture of catalysts

Author links open overlay panelGLeofantiaBVenturellic

Outline

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https://doi.org/10.1016/S0920-5861(98)00050-9Get rights and content

Abstract

The origin, the classification and the effect on catalytic performance of pore texture of heterogeneous catalysts are briefly examined. The techniques and the methods suitable for the determination of related properties (surface area, pore volume and pore size distribution) are reviewed. Particular attention is paid to the most widely used ones: vapour adsorption at low temperature, mercury porosimetry, incipient wetness impregnation and picnometry. Advantages, disadvantages and applicability of each method to different pore textures are pointed out. The best choice of a group of methods, allowing a complete characterization of catalysts, is proposed.

The phenomenon of eParticipation is receiving increasing attention, demonstrated by recent technology implementations, experiments, government reports, and research programs. Understanding such an emerging field is a complex endeavor because there is no generally agreed upon definition of the field, no clear overview of the research disciplines or methods it draws upon, and because the boundaries of the field are undecided. Using conventional literature review techniques, we identify 131 scientific articles considered important for the field's theoretical development. This sample provides the starting point for a grounded analysis leading to the development of an overview model: the field of eParticipation seen from a researcher's perspective. The model provides structure for understanding the emerging shape of the field as well as an initial indication of its content. It also provides the basis for developing research agendas for the future.

Publisher Summary

A classification of behavior patterns in terms of their developmental determinants depends critically on a sharp division between determinants with specific outcomes and those that have general effects. Many behavior patterns are likely to be affected by both inherited and environmental determinants with specific outcomes. Such patterns can invariably be unscrambled into intercalating innate, and acquired behavioral components are not convincing. The distinctiveness of the behavior arises from the interaction of inherited and environmental determinants both having general effects on a wide variety of behavior patterns. The chapter shares the four-part classification of behavior that provides a focus for research into the sources of behavioral distinctiveness. Environmental determinants that have specific outcomes are mediated by learning processes, and it is a useful tactic in anyone's strategy for studying behavioral development to deny animal particular opportunities for learning. The chapter also outlines the difficulties inherent in one classification that rests in part on the nature of long lasting effects on behavior. It is now useful to reverse the procedure and consider a classification of behavior patterns in terms.

Pain

Volume 63, Issue 3, December 1995, Pages 341-351

Sensitivity of patients with painful temporomandibular disorders to experimentally evoked pain

Author links open overlay panelWilliamMaixnerAsgeirSigurdsson

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https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3959(95)00068-2Get rights and content

Abstract

Temporomandibular disorders (TMD) represent a group of chronic painful conditions involving the muscles of mastication and the temporomandibular joint. We determined whether patients with painful TMD are more sensitive to noxious stimuli than age-matched control subjects. Fifty-two TMD patients (16 with muscle pain and 36 with combined muscle and joint pain) and 23 age-matched and gender-matched volunteers participated. Forearm thermal pain threshold and tolerance values were determined. A submaximal effort tourniquet procedure was used to evoke ischemic muscle pain. Relative to control subjects, TMD patients had significantly lower thermal pain threshold, ischemic pain threshold, and ischemic pain tolerance values; and thermal pain tolerance values also tended to be lower. Pain sensitivity did not differ between the two groups of TMD patients. Furthermore, the submaximal effort tourniquet procedure, which is capable of altering acute orofacial pain (Sigurdsson and Maixner, 1994) did not produce a consistent reduction in orofacial pain associated with TMD. We concluded that TMD patients are more sensitive to noxious stimuli than pain-free controls. These findings provide additional evidence that TMD is a psychophysiological disorder of the central nervous system which modulates emotional, physiological and neuroendocrine responses to emotional and physical stressors.

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