Can I Still Play Cricket in Heaven? 1947-1979
OUTSIDE OF PAKISTAN. I am mainly known for my 21-year-long cricket career. But
in my home country. I am the head of a party that is battling to take on a political elite
that has for more than six decades stymied this great country. depriving it of its God-
given potential. Ruled alternately by military dictators like President Musharraf. or as a
fiefdom by families like the Bhuttos and Sharifs. Pakistan has drifted far from the ideals
of its founders. Far from being the Islamic welfare state that was envisaged. Pakistan is
a country where politics is a game of loot and plunder and any challenger to the status
quo - even somebody with my kind of public profile and popularity - can be suddenly
arrested and threatened with violence. Founded as a homeland for Indian Muslims on
the principle of the unifying qualities of Islam. it remains a fractured country. Kashmir
to the north-east has been. since independence. the subject of a violent dispute between
India and Pakistan. the region divided between the two. In the north-west a civil war
between the army and militants plagues the Pashtun heartlands of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
and FATA (the Federally Administered Tribal Areas). Baluchistan. a vast. rugged.
unexplored and thinly populated province bordering Iran and Afghanistan. simmers with
a separatist insurgency. To the south the Arabian Sea washes against the shores of
Baluchistan and Sindh. where the provincial capital Karachi is riven with fighting
between various ethnic groups. including Pashtun immigrants and the descendants of
Muslims who came from the other side of the border at Partition. referred to as Mohajirs
or refugees. Meanwhile. Punjab. home to more than half of the country's population. is
resented by other provinces for monopolizing Pakistani political power and prosperity.
For me our country's woes began soon after Pakistan was created in 1947. when
we lost our great leader Jinnah. Pakistan - which means Land of the Pure - was just five
years old when I was born. We had such pride in our country then. such optimism. We
were a new nation. wrested out of the dying British Raj as a homeland for Muslims.
Gone were the insidious humiliations of colonialism and the fear of being drowned in an
overwhelming Hindu majority in an independent India. We were a free people. free to
rediscover an Islamic culture that had once towered over the subcontinent. Free. too. to
implement the ideals of Islam based on equality. and social and economic justice. A
democracy. as Pakistan's founding father Muhammad Ali Jinnah said. not a theocracy.
We were to be the shining example in the Muslim world of what Islam could achieve
were it allowed to flourish. Such dreams we had. It was only much later that we
discovered how hard it would be to fulfil these dreams. even in a brand-new nation like
ours. unburdened by the rigidities of history. As the years went by. we built our own
tormented history. and drifted further and further away from the ideals that had inspired
Pakistan's creation.
Pakistan's roots lay in the final days of the British Raj in India. Before then the
territory - roughly defined as the Punjab. the North-West Frontier Province. the
coastline on the Arabian sea of Sindh province and Baluchistan - had not been defined
as Pakistan but. over the centuries. became first part of one empire and then another.
The British. initially through the East India Company and later through the British
Army. controlled the area from the early part of the nineteenth century onward. From
the 1880s. though. the aim for millions of people throughout the subcontinent who
wanted self-determination was the end of British rule. The Indian National Congress.
which initially included Muslims. worked to achieve this end. The British did not want
to relinquish control but the Second World War weakened Britain economically and
politically. and by then the empire on which 'the sun never sets' was in its twilight
years.
The Indian National Congress negotiated with the British to bring about the end
of their rule over India. and they wanted to see the whole subcontinent remain one
country. Here the histories of the two nations starts to diverge; wary of Hindu
nationalism. and mindful of the kind of violence that took place at sporadic intervals
over the 1 920s and 1930s in different cities and provinces in India. the All-India Muslim
League took a different view. As part of this league. two men in particular were
fundamental in the foundation of Pakistan. Jinnah and Allama Muhammad Iqbal.
Iqbal. who died in 1 938. nine years before the creation of Pakistan. is the
visionary poet-philosopher considered to be the spiritual founder of Pakistan. In 1 930 in
an address to the All-India Muslim League. he said. 'I would like to see the Punjab.
North-West Frontier Province. Sindh and Baluchistan amalgamated into a single State.
Self-government within the British Empire or without the British Empire. the formation
of a consolidated North-West Indian Muslim State appears to me to be the final destiny
of Muslims. at least of North-West India.' Believing that 'the Indian Muslim is entitled
to full and free development on the lines of his own culture and tradition in his own
Indian homelands,' Iqbal felt that this was a necessary stage for the Muslim community
to develop its collective selfhood. or khudi.
Iqbal not only conceived of a self-governing Muslim state. his passionate voice
awakened and activated Indian Muslims. motivating them not only to strive to free
themselves from the bondage of imperialism and colonialism. but also to challenge other
forms of totalitarian control. Believing fervently in human equality and the right of
human beings to dignity. justice and freedom. Iqbal empowered the disempowered to
stand up and be counted.
When I was older. I found Iqbal's work hugely inspirational. He argued against
an unquestioning acceptance of Western democracy as the self-governing model. and
instead suggested that by following the rules of Islam a society would tend naturally
towards social justice. tolerance. peace and equality. Iqbal's interpretation of Islam
differs very widely from the narrow meaning that is sometimes given to it. For Iqbal.
Islam is not just the name for certain beliefs and forms of worship. The difference
between a Muslim and a non-Muslim is not merely a theological one - it is a difference
of a fundamental attitude towards life.
Iqbal considered pride in one's lineage or caste to be one of the major reasons for
the downfall of Muslims. In his view. in Islam. based on the principles of 'equality.
solidarity and freedom'. there was no hierarchy or aristocracy. and the criterion for
assessing the merit of human beings was taqwa (righteousness). As Prophet Muhammad
(Peace Be Upon Him) said: 'The noblest of human beings are those who fear God most. '
In other words. those who are humane and just. because when you fear God you believe
you are accountable to Him and must act accordingly.
To Iqbal the culture of Islam did not consist of the actual cultural practices of
Muslims. It was an ideal value-system. based upon the ethical principles enshrined in
the Quran. He believed that Islam provided the guidance needed by human beings to
realize their God-given potential to the fullest. In his philosophy of khudi. Iqbal
presented his blueprint for action that would lead to intellectually sound. ethically based
and spiritually grounded development of individuals and communities. Iqbal and others.
such as Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan (1817-1898). who urged Muslims to obtain a Western
education and established the Aligarh University for this purpose. argued that this vision
of an ideal society could never be achieved as long as Muslims remained in a minority
in a Hindu-dominated India.
It was not only that India, with its caste system and social inequalities, was the
antithesis of everything they wanted. It was also that such a bold experiment of
recreating the ideals of Islam could never be achieved in a country where Muslims were
in the minority. At the time, much of the Islamic world was under European colonial
rule, and realizing the promise of Islam required a country - or at least a state within
India where Muslims would have the opportunity to live according to the highest ethical
ideals and best practices of their faith.
When Iqbal died in 1 938 - my father was one of the many who attended his
funeral - it was left to the lawyer-politician Muhammad Ali Jinnah to create that
country.
Iqbal was an idealist but he offered concrete guidance to Muslims about how to
live a life grounded in the integrated vision of the Quran. Jinnah also combined idealism
with pragmatism. 'Somewhat formal and fastidious, and a little aloof and imperious of
manner, [his] calm hauteur masks a naIve and eager humanity, an intuition quick and
tender, a humour gay and winning; the obvious sanity and serenity of his worldly
wisdom disguise a shy and splendid idealism,' wrote Sarojini Naidu, the first woman to
become president of the Congress Party. Jinnah had originally been a member of the
Indian Congress Party and an ambassador of Hindu-Muslim understanding, committed
to a united India. Yet he had fallen out with Mohandas Gandhi; when the Islamic
Caliphate finally collapsed in Turkey after the First World War, it was Gandhi who led
the protests for its restoration, seeing in this a way of challenging the British. Jinnah
opposed the movement. He also disliked Congress leader Jawaharlal Nehru, who he felt
had used his closeness to Britain's Viceroy of India, Louis Mountbatten, to
outmanoeuvre India's Muslims in their fight for political power. Mountbatten in turn
had no patience for the legal constitutional niceties put forward by Jinnah to seek special
electorates to safeguard the interests of the Muslims. Mountbatten's wife, Edwina, was
so close to Nehru that many Pakistanis afterwards believed they had had an affair, which
turned British policy in favour of the Hindus.
Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Jawaharlal Nehru, Mohandas Gandhi and Congress
member Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, a Muslim leader of the Indian National Congress
who later became education minister in India's government, were four giants of the
independence movement - even if they had their own idea of what freedom meant for
the people of India. Even Gandhi and Jinnah, despite their differences, held views in
common; both believed that their new countries were not secular ones but ones in which
religion would play an important role. Gandhi said, 'Those who say religion has nothing
to do with politics do not know what religion is,' as he thought that politics without
religion would be immoral; while Jinnah, some years later in a speech to the State Bank
of Pakistan in 1948, reiterated that 'We must ... present to the world an economic
system based on the true Islamic concept of equality of manhood and social justice. We
will thereby be fulfilling our mission as Muslims.' Both Jinnah and Gandhi believed that
it was the compassion preached by every religion that could become a counterweight to
materialism.
Anti-British unity fractured after the Khilafat movement, and from the late 1 920s
political battles within the Congress led to unrealistic demands being made of the
Muslim organizations. This intransigence 'meant that Hindu revivalists were left with
the greater part of the blame ... for the failure to reach some form of Hindu-Muslim
agreement,' observed Professor Francis Robinson. Jinnah no longer believed Muslims
would be safe in a united India.
At a meeting of the Muslim League in Lahore in March 1 940, Jinnah added his
voice to a call for the creation of two states, one for Hindus, the other for Muslims: 'It is
extremely difficult to appreciate why our Hindu friends fail to understand the real nature
of Islam and Hinduism. They are not religions in the strict sense of the word. but are. in
fact. different and distinct social orders. and it is a dream that the Hindus and Muslims
can ever evolve a common nationality .... he declared. 'The Hindus and Muslims
belong to two different religious philosophies. social customs. litterateurs. They neither
intermarry nor interdine together and. indeed. they belong to two different civilizations
which are based mainly on conflicting ideas and conceptions. Their aspect on life and of
life are different. It is quite clear that Hindus and Mussalmans derive their inspiration
from different sources of history. They have different epics. different heroes. and
different episodes. Very often the hero of one is a foe of the other and. likewise. their
victories and defeats overlap. To yoke together two such nations under a single state.
one as a numerical minority and the other as a majority. must lead to growing discontent
and final destruction of any fabric that may be so built for the government of such a
state.' At this time. democracy was still evolving in the world and people did not believe
that it could accommodate different religions and ethnic groups.
In what is known as the Lahore Resolution. the meeting rejected the concept of a
united India on the grounds of growing inter-communal violence. and demanded 'that
the areas in which the Muslims are numerically in majority as in the North-Western and
Eastern zones of India should be grouped to constitute independent states in which the
constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign'. Seven years later. Pakistan was
born. although it was. as Jinnah complained. a 'moth-eaten state' with far less territory
than its supporters had envisaged. It was created in two wings. West and East Pakistan.
separated by 1 .000 miles of Indian territory. The great provinces of Punjab and Bengal
had been split apart. and at least one million people died in the tide of migration as
Muslims moved into Pakistan. and Hindus and Sikhs fled to India. I had an uncle in the
Pakistani army who was protecting the Punjab border crossing at the time. He always
said that the bloodshed he saw during those six weeks was worse than anything he had
seen in four years of fighting against the Japanese on the Burmese Front in the Second
World War. He was appalled by the butchery. from which not even women or children
were spared. Estimates of the numbers who died range from 200.000 to over one
million. More than 12 million were made homeless by the act of Partition and had to
travel long distances to settle in new parts of the country. and vast refugee camps sprang
up as a result. Families and communities were devastated as those widowed and
orphaned in the slaughter had to take what was left of their belongings on a voyage to a
new part of the country. where they would be unknown and - often - unwanted.
Margaret Bourke-White. the American photographer and the first female war
correspondent. called Partition a 'massive exercise in human misery'.
The experience for individuals. in the accounts I heard and read. was
heartbreaking. A sixteen-year-old boy joined the Pakistani army and was based on the
border: 'There were atrocities committed by all sides - Hindus. Sikhs and Muslims. I
saw people arriving on the trains that had been mutilated. women who had been raped
and children who had been traumatized. I remember thinking at the time: "Is this what
freedom means?" I had three uncles who lived in Simla at the time. Amid the chaos. we
had lost contact with them. We never found them.' Amid the horror there were often
stories of Muslims concealed from their would-be attackers by their Hindu neighbours.
or the same tale but told by Hindu survivors. One such. from Jhang in west Punjab.
remembered 'Mr Qureshi' who helped several Hindu families reach the border. only to
be murdered as a 'non-believer' by his fellow-Muslims for having saved them.
The madness that took place was exactly that - a madness. No one anticipated or
dreamt that such things would happen. and certainly no one expected the violence to
reach such heights. Was it a reaction to the end of British rule. a release of pent-up
frustrations after the decades of humiliation? It suited the British for there to be division
between the peoples of India. and they actively fostered this. as an incoming viceroy. the
Earl of Elgin. was informed in 1861: 'We have maintained our power in India by
playing off one party against the other. and we must continue to do so.' The haste with
which the plan for Partition was implemented certainly contributed towards the hostile
atmosphere that created such mayhem. and the British were very much responsible for
setting this timetable.
However. the Muslim political leaders. virtually against all odds and in the face
of intense opposition from India's dominant Congress Party. had achieved the
impossible. They had created a new country. Though we were in dire straits in the early
years. the revolutionary zeal that gave birth to Pakistan carried us through.
Democracy. though. never had an opportunity to flourish in Pakistan as Jinnah
died in September 1 948. leaving us rudderless. In an era dominated by the great
superpowers of the USA and the Soviet Union. Pakistan sided with the US. but even this
was to prove troublesome. Our first prime minister. Liaquat Ali Khan. died in 1951.
assassinated in Rawalpindi (in the same park where many years later. in 2007. former
prime minister Benazir Bhutto would also be killed). He was killed by an Afghan
opposed to the settlement that had left Kashmir divided. a man who felt Pakistan should
be fighting to take it back. Many at the time saw more sinister signs in his murder. amid
rumours of American pressure on Pakistan in relation to the access to Soviet airspace
Pakistan could provide. The relationship Pakistan has had with America as a nation.
although not perhaps with its government. since then has never been a satisfactory one.
and after 9/11 it only worsened - but more of that later.
While India spent the early years of its independence with the stability provided
by its first prime minister. Jawaharlal Nehru - who remained in office until his death in
1 964 - we began a slow slide into alternating military and civilian rule which never
allowed the political institutions to mature. We had other problems too. in part because
of the division between the Pakistani elite and the masses. The idea of Pakistan had been
conceived within a united India. and found its major intellectual wellspring in what is
today the northern Indian province of Uttar Pradesh; the epicentre of the Pakistan
movement was in areas that did not eventually become part of Pakistan. Later various
ethnic groups. from the Bengalis of East Pakistan. to the Baluch in the deserts running
into Iran. to the Pashtun in the tribal areas bordering Afghanistan. would find reasons to
rebel against the state. often with disastrous consequences. Since Pakistan. and
especially its army. was dominated by Punjabis. these different ethnic groups felt they
were denied both their economic and democratic rights. and sooner or later all took up
arms against the state. We also began our life as a country at war. fighting India over the
territory of Kashmir in 1 947-1948. and the festering dispute since then has helped give
the army (and by default the majority Punjab element within it) a disproportionately
powerful role in Pakistan. Yet in the optimism and fervour of those early years. I believe
we might have overcome all those difficulties had we been able to find a political
system capable of implementing the egalitarian. democratic and ethical ideals of Islam
that had inspired the creation of Pakistan.
Instead. the British-trained bureaucrats had a low opinion of democracy - at least
as far as Pakistan was concerned. They had been educated in a system that had taught
them to look upon the masses with contempt and. copying the former colonial rulers.
had inherited a mindset that the natives were not to be trusted. Without leaders with the
vision of Iqbal. or the stature of Jinnah. or for that matter of Nehru. whose long tenure
helped bed down Indian democracy. we were condemned to slide back into the kind of
discreet authoritarian rule which marked the British Raj . At the first opportunity. the
military-civilian bureaucracy stalled the democratic process. Pakistan did not come up
with a full constitution until 1 956. because the West Pakistan ruling elite did not want to
give the Bengalis an equal share in power. Given that the population of East Pakistan
was larger than that of West Pakistan, to deprive the latter of their right to an equal
share, experiments like the 'one unit system' (where the whole of West Pakistan was
treated as one province) were introduced. This helped sow the seeds of Bengali
resentment, and eventually led to the break-up of the country.
The 1 956 constitution was abrogated by the commander-in-chief of the army,
General Ayub Khan, who took over the country in 1 958 and announced a presidential
form of government. He remained in power for ten years before he was forced to resign
amid popular unrest and was replaced by another military man, General Yahya Khan.
Under Ayub Khan, Pakistan developed and changed - he introduced the Muslim Family
Laws, which modernized some aspects of laws regarding marriage - but his efforts in
agriculture and industry benefited the few, not the many. More importantly, he did not
believe in democracy, so politically the country stagnated. Discontent in East Pakistan
began to grow as the Bengali people, politically and economically excluded, had
insignificant representation within the ruling elite. The creation of Bangladesh in 1971
was a direct consequence of this prolonged military rule, along with the reluctance of
the ruling classes of West Pakistan to treat East Pakistan as an equal. Paradoxically,
economically the country passed through a golden period. Our growth rate was the
highest in our history, though the majority of the population was excluded from the
fruits of this economic boom. Administratively the country was well run - along with
contempt for the natives, the British had also bequeathed us a reasonably efficient
bureaucracy. From my vantage point as a child in Lahore, and indeed as I have been told
later by my parents, the optimism which had accompanied the birth of Pakistan survived
and even flourished in this early period of military rule. It helped of course that we were
living in Punjab, the most powerful province in Pakistan, where we had little reason to
suspect the many dangerous undercurrents building up in our country.
Pakistan was five years old when I was born. As a child in a comfortably off
family in Lahore, I felt only the quiet optimism of a country hopeful for its future. It was
an idyllic childhood, with the freedom of plenty of space in which to play and the
security provided by the Pakistani extended-family system. In Zaman Park where I grew
up we were surrounded by ploughed fields and open spaces; there were few houses and
everyone who lived there was family, so it was more like being on a farm. The first
house in Zaman Park had been built by my maternal grandfather's brother - whose
name was Ahmad Zaman. At Partition in 1947 my grandfather's family also moved
there. In the hot summer afternoons I would go out with my air gun to shoot pigeons or
to swim in the canal, and in the evenings play cricket with my cousins. There was no
such thing as organizing play dates. I would be out till dark - my mother did not worry,
she always knew I was with family. For fresh milk every house had a cow or a water
buffalo.
Today, Zaman Park is in the centre of Lahore, so fast has the city spread in every
direction. All that is left of those green and open fields of my childhood is a small park.
There are so many houses that people do not know each other as they once did.
Although boys still swim in the canal, it is now dirty and polluted. Lahore's water,
which used to be delicious, has become so contaminated it has to be boiled before
drinking. I used to go to a school friend's farm that was barely ten miles out of Lahore
and there at the age of fourteen I used a shotgun for the first time and bagged fourteen
partridges. It was the most thrilling thing I had ever done. My friend's farm is now part
of a suburb of Lahore and has been transformed from a place of wildlife and green fields
into a concrete jungle. Today in the entire province of Punjab there are probably only a
handful of reserved areas where one gun can shoot fourteen partridges.
My mother would make us children go to see our maternal grandmother with our
cousins every day for half an hour. These evenings with her were most enjoyable. She
would know everything that was going on in our lives. In fact she would get involved in
standards. When I became a successful test cricketer and gave interviews to the press. I
would be extremely conscious of what I was saying as I constantly worried about how
my extended family would react to my comments.
Like most Muslim children. I grew up with religion. My mother used to tell us
bedtime stories. each one with a moral message - about Moses and the arrogant
Pharaoh. Joseph and his treacherous brothers. and of course about the life of the Prophet
Muhammad (PBUH). We were also taught about Jesus. considered in Islam to be a
messenger of God like Muhammad (PBUH). Muslims believe that God had previously
revealed His message for mankind to the Prophets of the Jews and Christians but that
Muhammad (PBUH) perfected the religion first revealed to Abraham. Muhammad
(PBUH) is seen as the ' seal of the prophecy' - the last in the series of Prophets God sent
to the world. Islam recognizes the teachings of the Jewish Torah and the Christian Bible
and while it teaches that Jews and Christians have in some areas strayed from the true
path. it acknowledges them as 'People of the Book' . Every night before going to sleep
my mother would make us say our prayers. and tell me stories about the Prophet
(PBUH). There was one particular story my mother would tell me: an old Meccan came
before the Prophet (PBUH). and said to him. The only reason I want to become a
Muslim is because all my clan has converted to Islam. but I am too old to change my
habits. Tell me one thing I can do so that I can become a Muslim but keep my habits.
The Prophet (PBUH) replied. Tell the truth. that is the one thing you need to be a
Muslim. This story appealed to me as a boy. because I too found the rituals to be
cumbersome. Besides. I could never lie to my mother. as she would always catch me out
simply by looking at my face.
My mother also told me how her father. Ahmad Hasan Khan. modelled himself
on the Prophet (PBUH). and would tell me stories about how. whatever he did. he would
always tell us 'This is what the Prophet (PBUH) did' - even to the point of liking honey
and dates.
The concept of heaven and hell was made clear to me ever since I can remember.
The only problem was that I could not understand heaven. My poor mother frequently
had to answer questions like - would I be able to play cricket in heaven? And would I be
able to shoot?
When I was seven years old a maulvi (Islamic scholar) came to teach me and my
sisters the Quran in Arabic. In school we had a religious knowledge class and our daily
assembly started with a verse of the Quran. Every Friday I went with my father to the
mosque. On Eids. the two biggest festivals of the Muslim calendar. all the males of
Zaman Park. young and old. would go to the shrine of the great sixteenth-century Sufi
saint Mian Mir Sahib. Mian Mir is also a legendary figure for Sikhs. who come to pray
at his shrine in Lahore. Our family graveyard is outside the shrine - so after Eid prayers
we would go to our relatives' graves and pray for their departed souls. Such shrines are
common in the subcontinent. where Islam was spread from the ninth century onwards in
large part through the Sufis. Their egalitarian message and doctrine of love. peace and
compassion appealed to the poor and dispossessed. The Sufis' tolerance of other
religions and cultures meant that as they made their way through what became the
Islamic world the religion they spread blended with local customs to become a kind of
populist Islam. Their followers made shrines of their graves. which became places of
pilgrimage. Rich and poor alike still flock to these shrines to pray and make offerings.
Once a year. usually on the anniversary of the saint's death. there is an urs (a festival).
when prayers are accompanied by devotional dancing and singing and the distribution of
food. This is the kind of Islam that the austere Wahhabi branch. which has influenced
the Taliban. opposes.
My parents were both easy-going Muslims who always taught us that Allah was
'the most beneficent and the most merciful'. We were never forced to read our prayers
or fast. At Ramadan, the month when Muslims fast from sunrise to sunset, it was we
children who would choose to compete with each other to keep our fasts. I kept my first
fast around the age of nine and was rewarded with presents from my father and mother.
If there was anything said against Islam, both my parents would defend it vigorously.
My mother's extended family was originally from the Burki Pashtun tribe in
Kaniguram, the biggest town in South Waziristan, which rests in a fertile valley close to
the Afghan border in the tribal areas. She instilled in me a pride that the Pashtuns had
never been subjugated and had constantly fought the British. Her family had ended up
living in twelve fortresses, known as basti Pathan, near the town of Jalandhar (where
she took much pride in saying my grandfather had hosted Jinnah) , south-east of
Amritsar, only forty miles or so away from Lahore but in what became India. The whole
family had emigrated to Lahore at Partition, although none of them had been killed.
When they moved out in a convoy the Sikh gangs who were massacring the Muslims in
Punjab believed - wrongly - that they were armed, and left them alone.
My father's family were also Pashtuns (also known as Pathans), but from the
Niazi tribe, which had come to India with invading Afghan tribes around the fifteenth
century. Much of his family still lived in Mianwali (a town on the river Indus on the
border with Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, formerly known as the North-West Frontier) and
family ties are still very strong there. In time amongst the Burkis (my mother's tribe),
the family system will begin to weaken, and my children will only know their first
cousins, but in Mianwali even third cousins know each other - I frequently meet Niazis
who will tell me how they are related to me through my great-grandfather. Village
communities have stronger family systems than urban ones.
In a place like Mianwali people often operate as part of a family group of maybe
a hundred people. There is a network of siblings and first, second and third cousins.
Everything is shared - salaries, responsibilities, friendships, enemies, hardships and
successes. When people from rural areas go to look for jobs in the cities, the first people
they contact are their relatives. If there are none, then they seek out people from their
village or tribe. Millions of people have been displaced by fighting or floods in recent
years, but you do not see hordes of hungry, homeless people sleeping on the streets of
Pakistani cities. Many have been absorbed by the family and tribal network - people
with little have taken in, fed, clothed and housed people with still less than them. All
this of course helps free the country's rulers and elite from bearing the burden of so
many displaced people, let alone the responsibility of paying taxes and implementing
any kind of effective welfare system. As I have so often observed in Pakistan, the poor
have taken the blow for the rich.
Crowing up in Lahore, I became aware of two strong prejudices. One was against
colonialism. This, according to my mother and father, was the ultimate humiliation for a
people. At bedtime, my mother would tell me stories of resistance to the British, about
heroes like Tipu Sultan, the 'Tiger of Mysore' , who died defending his city when he was
attacked by three armies, the British, the Nizam of Hyderabad's and the Marathas', in
1 805. At the same time, she would contemptuously relate the story of the surrender of
the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafa, who died in 1862 in captivity in Burma.
She would quote the Tipu Sultan's remark, 'The day of a lion is better than a thousand
of a jackal. '
The general thinking in the Indian subcontinent is that the greatest damage
inflicted by colonialism was material. There is no doubt the subcontinent did suffer in
such a way. In the 1 700s the CDP of India was almost 25 per cent of the world's
economy. By the time the British left it was around 2 per cent. The British lawyer
Cornelius Walford estimated in 1879 that there had been thirty-four famines in the
previous century or so of British rule - but only seventeen in the preceding two
thousand years. M. ]. Akbar writes, 'The Mughal response to famine had been good
governance: embargo on food export. anti-speculation regulation. tax relief and free
kitchens. If any merchant short-changed a peasant during a famine. the punishment was
an equivalent weight in flesh from his body. That kept hoarding down.' Millions died in
these catastrophes. A materialist lobby feels that British rule gave India a strong
administrative system along with an infrastructure of roads and railways. Up to a point
this is true as well. In my opinion the greatest damage done to the people of the Indian
subcontinent was in the humiliation of slavery and the consequent loss of self-esteem.
The inferiority complex that is ingrained in a conquered nation results in its imitation of
some of the worst aspects of the conquerors. while at the same time neglecting its own
great traditions. It destroys originality as the occupied people strive only to imitate the
occupiers. Furthermore. this slavish mimicry wrecks any sense of leadership in the elite
- the people with the most expensive education in the country. One of Iqbal's great
qualities was that he provided such new and original thought. despite having lived his
entire life under colonial rule. In a well-known verse he told his son:
My way is not one of being wealthy but of faqiri [spiritual poverty]
Your khudi [self-hood] do not sell. in poverty make a name
The legacy of colonialism led to our other prejudice. against India. We as a nation
felt we had been cheated out of Kashmir by the pro-Indian last Viceroy of India. Lord
Louis Mountbatten. Hatred against our neighbour. in Punjab especially. reached its
height in the 1 950s and 1 960s since so many Muslims had migrated from East Punjab at
Partition in 1 947 and hardly a family had not lost loved ones in the bloody massacres
during the border crossing. It was only later. when I toured India playing cricket. that I
realized how much we have in common and lost this prejudice.
Islam. we were told. was tolerant. and it had spread in the subcontinent not by the
force of arms but by the great Sufi saints. such as Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (known as
' Gharib Nawaz·. the benefactor of the poor. who lived in north India in the late twelfth
and early thirteenth centuries). who won people over with their humanitarian message.
Sufis were held in such esteem that. in 1 303. when a Mongol army under Targhi laid
seige to Delhi. Sultan Alauddin Khilji appealed to the great Sufi saint Nazam Uddin
Auliya for help. Since both my parents had Hindu and Sikh friends from school and
college before independence. we were never taught to hate people from other religions.
There was no militant fundamentalism in those days and those few who could be
classified as religious bigots were not taken seriously. We were told. however. that
Islam was the superior religion since the Quran had been dictated to the Prophet
(PBUH) by God himself. whereas the other holy books had been written by man and so
human faults had slipped in. Muhammad (PBUH) was unlettered. He therefore had to
ask other people to write down the messages he had received from God. Apart from
being a book of wisdom. the Quran is still considered the greatest work of Arabic
literature and the beauty of its words has converted many. including the great caliph
Umar. One of the Meccans most opposed to the new religion being preached by
Muhammad (PBUH). Umar was at the forefront of plans to assassinate the Prophet
(PBUH). But according to Muslim tradition. when he heard his sister recite from the
Book his heart softened. he wept and Islam entered into him. He went on to become one
of Muhammad's (PBUH) main companions. inheriting leadership of the Muslims after
his death. The only time I truly understood what the caliph might have experienced was
when I took my sons once to the Faisal Mosque in Islamabad for Friday prayers. A
visiting imam from Egypt was delivering the khutba. the sermon. Often you sit there
during the sermon and become lost in your own thoughts because you cannot understand
the Arabic. But when the imam started reciting I was immediately struck by the sound
that gently filled the whole mosque. Looking around I saw that as his voice resounded
through the building it was having the same effect on other worshippers. It was like
listening to a classical symphony. It gave me goose bumps. I have never heard anything
like it before or since. not even in the two great mosques of the holy cities of Mecca or
Medina.
Islam is not just a religion to be practised privately by individuals. but a way of
life. The Quran lays out clear rules for how a society should be governed. and guidance
on how people should behave. I was taught it was also a forgiving religion that laid
special emphasis on justice and compassion.
There were many challenges. most of all the incendiary issue of Kashmir. In
1 965. when I was just thirteen. war broke out for the second time since independence. I
will never forget this period; late one evening we started hearing the sound of
bombardment. and the windows began to shake. From our rooftop we caught sight of
the flashes of explosions along the border. I remember the anxious faces of my parents
as the bombardment continued all night. The Indian army was advancing towards
Lahore. There were rumours that Indian paratroopers might land in the city. and
patriotic fever gripped the country. The elders of Zaman Park were called to my uncle's
house for a kind of council of war. It was decided that my older cousins should group
together in a civil defence force to defend Zaman Park. I was itching to be part of this
force and. armed with the .22 rifle that my father had just given me for my birthday. I
marched out to join them. only to be sent back and told I was too young. I cursed myself
for not being old enough to join in. Along with my mother and sisters. I was sent away
from the city for my safety. As we approached Pindi. I remember seeing open areas
outside the city swarming with warriors from the tribal areas volunteering to assist the
army. Later I found out that my overzealous cousins almost ambushed. shot and killed
two innocent people. mistaking them for Indian paratroopers. Everyone in the country
was united in a desire to defeat the enemy. I don' t think Pakistan had ever witnessed
such unity. The nearest thing to it was perhaps when we won the World Cup in 1 992.
As I grew up I developed a passion not only for my country but also for the
Pakistani countryside. Every summer I would go with my parents and sisters to the hill
stations to escape the oppressive heat of Punjab. I can still remember the thrill I felt as
the car slowly ascended the mountain road and the air cooled. Only those who have
experienced the intense heat of the Punjab summer can understand such relief. There
was no air conditioning in those days. We had picnics and walks in the forest. saw
monkeys. jackals. porcupines and a huge variety of birds. Occasionally we even saw the
tracks of a leopard. Once. when I was about five years old. during a trip to the hill
station Doonga Cali. over two hundred miles to the north-west of Lahore. a leopard
killed a donkey right outside our rest house in the middle of the night. I can still recall
how fascinated I was by the poor donkey's partially eaten corpse. In the winter I went
partridge shooting with my uncle and male cousins in the Salt Range. a low mountain
range about two and a half hours' drive west of Lahore. Some of my best childhood
memories are of these trips. We stayed in colonial rest houses in the wilderness. ate
sumptuous picnic lunches and returned in the evening to relax around a log fire. The Salt
Range used to be teeming with wildlife: wolves. leopards. hyenas. jackals. foxes. deer
and wild sheep. There are fewer animals now but the Salt Range remains my favourite
place for shooting partridge because of its beautiful weather in the winter and hilly
terrain. My mother also loved wildlife and the mountains and she fuelled my passion by
telling me stories from her childhood. Some were set in the Indian hill stations of Simla.
the summer capital of the British Raj . and the beautiful Himalayan station of Dalhousie
where she would holiday with her parents. Like most small boys. I was intrigued by the
more grisly tales. I particularly liked the one about how her dog was taken by a leopard
while her father was posted at Skaser in the Salt Range. I also loved the family legend
on my father's side about how my great uncle from Mianwali, a policeman, had fought
with a leopard that had been terrorizing the local villagers and killed it with the bayonet
of his gun, then spent six months in hospital from the mauling he received, He was
given the highest award the police could bestow.
The 1 965 war over Kashmir ended in seventeen days, but it left the military
dictator President Ayub Khan in a vulnerable state, allowing room for democratic
developments as his grip on power slipped, leading to the rise of a new political party -
the Pakistan People's Party (PPP) , under its leader Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. Bhutto had
studied at university in California and Oxford before he became a lawyer in London,
and he represented Pakistan at the United Nations before being appointed the country's
foreign minister in 1962 when he was only thirty-four. After the war he fell out with the
president and left government to form the PPP. Bhutto, like so many who come to
power in Pakistan, was seen at first as someone who could lead us back to democracy -
but later was to prove the opposite.
Here was a man who understood history, one with an exceptional mind, highly
educated and charismatic - Bhutto could have changed Pakistan completely. He was a
true Pakistani nationalist, he formed the first national grass-roots political party in
Pakistan. However, he had a fatal flaw in his character that undermined all that he could
have achieved - his feudal mindset couldn't tolerate dissent, and as a result his
government became known for its brutality in victimizing opponents.
But his ideas, which he expressed in his 1967 book The Myth of Independence,
carried great weight - and still do. It is a great shame that he himself could not live up to
all of his words. He called the story of all the civilizations of the world, from ancient
Egypt to the British and French empires, the story of 'greed urging domination and
colliding with the struggle for equality'. And he noted that 'Domination has been
justified as "the survival of the fittest"; it has been given the name of the White Man's
Burden ... today that ancient struggle has been epitomized in the creed of democracy
against dictatorship.' And most presciently he remarked that 'Twenty years of
independence have revealed to the people of Pakistan and India the sharp difference that
really exists between independence and sovereign equality. This was the beginning of
neo-colonialism. It no longer became necessary to control the destinies of smaller
countries by any jurisdiction over their territories.'
(The British had developed neo-colonialism in India in the previous century, in
the Princely States - of which there were well over five hundred - where they didn't
have to rule directly as they had puppet rulers to do their bidding. Today in Pakistan,
with drone attacks and raids in our cities, our sovereignty is compromised by those who
are puppets of the US and have followed US diktats against the interests of the people of
Pakistan. It is this aspect of neo-colonialism that is breeding extremism in Pakistan
today.)
Back then I was still young, a teenager, and in the late 1 960s I trekked in the
Karakoram, the mountain range spanning the borders between Pakistan, India and
China. Some of my favourite holidays have been spent there. It is one of the best places
for trekking in the world, with the greatest number of peaks over 24,000 feet (7,300
metres) including K2, the second-highest mountain on earth. It really is the roof of the
world; I have never seen such natural beauty anywhere in the world as in the Domel
valley at 9,000 feet, where the army holds its skiing competitions in the winter. The
valley floor was covered in red and white flowers and crossed by a crystal-clear stream.
It seemed to be the picture of paradise and every morning I was there I had to tell myself
I wasn't dreaming. The people in this area of Pakistan were warm and friendly,
untainted by tourism.
On one trip one of our two jeeps broke down on the Karakoram Highway. A
young man passing by offered to take us to his village for the night. We zigzagged up a
dirt track for about forty minutes before ending up in a tiny village on the edge of an
emerald-coloured lake and surrounded by thick pine forest. The villagers served us
delicious food. including the best mushrooms I have ever tasted. There was a full moon
and we sat all night by the lake listening to the wind blowing through the pines.
Pakistan's Northern Areas are almost twice the size of Switzerland. Who knows how
many such idyllic places still exist there? We came across similar hospitality in Hunza. a
stunningly beautiful valley supposedly the inspiration behind the mythical land of
Shangri-La; when I first went there in 1 967 locals untouched by materialism greeted us
with apricots and peaches. inviting us to stay in their houses. Amongst the endangered
species to be found in the Karakoram is the secretive snow leopard with its distinctive
grey-green eyes and I remember seeing snow leopard cubs. found by a shepherd and
presented as a gift for the Mir of Nagar. the ruler of what was until 1 974 still a princely
state located in the north of Gilgit-Baltistan. the most northerly point of Pakistan.
Hunza used to be so remote it could only be reached via a terrifying journey up
hairpin bends overlooking thousand-foot drops in old Willys Second World War jeeps.
Every so often if you dared to look down you would see the wreckage of a jeep that
hadn't made it. Then came the Karakoram Highway. sometimes known as the ninth
wonder of the world because of its elevation. the highest in the world for a paved road.
and because of the sheer difficulty of building it. It took the Pakistanis and the Chinese
twenty years to finish and cost the lives of almost nine hundred construction workers.
The Karakoram is still by far the most beautiful mountain wilderness in the world and
the people are still friendly but 'progress' has taken its toll. Population explosion.
massive deforestation by the timber mafia and package tours are quietly threatening this
paradise. Sadly. the modern world has brought unwelcome changes to many parts of
Pakistan.
Among those changes is the rapid increase in the population. which has grown
from 40 million in 1 947 to 1 80 million by 2011. The beauty and wilderness of our
country is fast disappearing. but it was already evident in the 1 950s and 1 960s that this
is only one of the problems that would bedevil Pakistan. These problems began in the
very fabric of the state itself. born out of our slavish adherence to the traditions and
institutions of the departing British. Far from shaking off colonialism. our ruling elite
slipped into its shoes. The more a Pakistani aped the British. the higher up the social
ladder he was considered to be. In the Gymkhana and the Punjab Club in Lahore.
Pakistanis pretended to be English. Everyone spoke English including the waiters; the
men dressed in suits; we. the members' children. watched English films while the
grownups danced to Western music on a Saturday night. Indeed some Pakistanis even
spoke Urdu with an English accent and ate curry and chapattis with a fork rather than
with their hands. While a native had to struggle to get membership of these clubs. any
European could simply walk in - the waiters would not dare question whether he was a
member or not. The Sind Club in Karachi. the ultimate refuge of the self-loathing brown
sahib. did not allow itself to be contaminated with any native Pakistani symbols.
Established by the British in 1871. it resisted even Pakistani national dress. banning it
until 1 974.
The small westernized elite. comprised mainly of civilian bureaucrats and
military men. also inherited the colonial contempt for the natives. Far from trying to
implement Iqbal's vision. they took advantage of a colonial system meant to control the
people. All the colonial institutions were left intact and as a result the only change for
ordinary Pakistanis was that they had a new set of rulers. the brown sahib instead of the
gora (white) sahib. Often these people were even more arrogant in dealing with the
masses than the colonialists. just as slave foremen were sometimes more brutal to the
slaves than their masters were. (A practice that continues to this day. as we'll see in
Chapter Eight. with the way Pakistani security forces acted in their treatment of
Afghans.) Almost all the bureaucrats came from the elite English-language schools built
by the British and modelled on their own public schools.
When my father returned after doing his postgraduate degree at Imperial College
London in 1 948. he was only the second person from his home town to have become an
'England returned'. and almost the entire town came to greet him at the railway station.
An 'England returned' would find his social status rise dramatically and he could have
his marriage arranged to a girl well above the status of his family. Then. as even now.
marriage advertisements in India often state a preference for a girl with fair or
'wheatish' complexion. Centuries of invasions from the north-west meant that the ruling
classes were often fairer than those ruled. leaving an ingrained colour consciousness on
the Indian psyche. An 'England returned' would automatically become a VIP in Zaman
Park. When any of my older cousins came back after studying at an English university.
we would bombard him with questions about life there. That knowledge alone gave
them status.
During their time in India. the British had embedded an inferiority complex
amongst the natives with great care. Waiters and attendants were made to wear the
clothes of Mughal army officers and the Mughal aristocracy. while the officers of the
symbols of British power. the army. the police and the civil service. wore the dress of
the colonials. The Mughal Empire. which covered most of the subcontinent from mid-
way through the sixteenth century. had begun its decline in the early 1 700s. But when
the British East India Company started to establish its power in the subcontinent
halfway through the sixteenth century. the Mughal court still held sway culturally and
politically over much of northern India. whose inhabitants - whether Hindu or Muslim -
regarded its splendour and culture with awe and its emperor as the embodiment of
political and religious power. For half a century many of the early colonialists aped the
customs of the court. They spoke Farsi. wore the clothing of the Mughal aristocracy.
gave up beef and pork and married local women. sometimes even taking several wives.
The British historian William Dalrymple has done much to chronicle the change in
attitudes as. between the mid-eighteenth and the mid-nineteenth century. the British took
on and defeated all their military rivals in South Asia. With the French. the Siraj ud-
Daula of Bengal. Tipu Sultan of Mysore. the Marathas and the Sikhs all vanquished. the
British became more confident of their grip over the region. and imperial arrogance set
in. Evangelical Christianity also played a major part in breeding a culture of British
superiority and a determination to unseat the Mughal emperor and humiliate the once-
great dynasty. As Dalrymple writes in The Last Mughal: 'No longer were Indians seen
as inheritors of a body of sublime and ancient wisdom as eighteenth-century luminaries
such as Sir William Jones and Warren Hastings had once believed; but instead merely
"poor benighted heathen". or even "licentious pagans". who. it was hoped. were eagerly
awaiting conversion.'
India had a decentralized system of education before the arrival of the British.
Each village had its own schools supported by revenues generated locally. while
colleges and madrassas (religious schools) of higher education were run by educational
trusts. or waq! boards. ( Waq! is an Islamic term for an endowment for a charitable
purpose.) When Bengal was conquered by the East India Company in 1 757. it was
discovered that 34 per cent of the land generated no taxes because it was owned by
various trusts. giving free education and healthcare. According to a survey by C. W.
Leitner in 1 850. some of these madrassas were of an extremely high standard - as good
as Oxford and Cambridge. Thanks to the properties owned by the trusts. they could
afford to pay handsome salaries to attract high-quality teachers. Leitner also surveyed
the Hoshiarpur district in East Punjab and found there was 84 per cent literacy in the
area - when the British left India it was down to 9 per cent. The British abolished the
trusts. confiscated the waqf1and endowments. centralized the education system and set
up elite English-language schools. These were meant to create a class of Indians who, in
the words of the nineteenth-century administrator Lord Thomas Macaulay, would be
'Indian in blood and colour but English in taste, in opinions, in morals, in intellect ... to
render them by degrees fit vehicles for conveying knowledge to the great mass of the
population.' Behind their backs, the British used to contemptuously call these brown
sahibs baboons, later ' babus' - the Hindi word for ' father' , only not so in this context.
The impact of the British-implemented education system ran far deeper than the
use of English and a love of cricket. Rather it had been used by the British for a century
to subjugate the local culture and create a ruling native elite. The British were too few to
dominate India themselves and relied on the acquiescence of a layer of natives to
enforce their rule - a form of collaboration which was one of the most humiliating
aspects of colonialism. I went to a school very much in the English mode, Aitchison
College, the nearest Pakistan had to Eton. Like the majority of my schoolmates, I
considered myself superior to those students who went to the government-run Urdu-
medium schools. In the English-medium schools not only were all the subjects taught in
English, but everyone was required to speak in English. Boys caught speaking in Urdu
during school hours were fined, despite it being the official language of Pakistan.
Our Muslim society with its traditions and rituals was left behind with our
families, and felt disconcertingly old-fashioned. The message of our education was that
you had to copy the ways of the superior colonialists to make progress in life. We were
to be transformed into cheap imitations of English public school boys. Our role models
naturally became Western, whether they were sportsmen, movie idols or pop stars.
Besides, we could not help but notice that the older generation was deeply impressed by
the colonials and their culture no matter how much they disliked them. It was only much
later that I realized how much our education dislocated our sense of ourselves as a
nation. At the time, I thought more about playing cricket on Aitchison's beautiful sports
fields. Today our English-language schools produce 'Desi Americans' - young kids
who, though they have never been out of Pakistan, have not only perfected the American
twang but all the mannerisms (including the tilt of a baseball cap) just by watching
Hollywood films. While my generation's land of milk and honey was England, today's
youth from the English-language schools want to get to the United States and live the
American dream.
When Pakistan became independent we should have rid ourselves of these
English-medium schools. In other post-colonial countries such as Singapore, India and
Malaysia they set up one core syllabus for the whole country. In Pakistan the
governments allowed this unjust system to perpetuate and English-medium schools still
import the British syllabus for students studying GCSEs and A-levels. Students
educated in these schools had a huge advantage over the children of the masses since all
the best jobs, especially in the prestigious civil service, went to those who spoke good
English. And these brown sahibs in the ruling elite were conditioned to despise their
own culture, and developed a self-loathing that stemmed from an ingrained inferiority
complex. To show that one was educated, a stranger would immediately throw English
words into the conversation to establish his credentials. At Aitchison, the more
anglicized a boy was, the more he was admired. We were impressed by English history,
English films, English teachers, English sports, English novels and English clothes. We
laughed at someone who could not speak English properly but it was quite cool to speak
Urdu with lots of English mixed in. We wore Western clothes and would feel awkward
in shalwar kameez except on 'ethnic' occasions like Eid.
When Ijoined the Lahore cricket team at the age of sixteen, I found that because I
came from an English-medium school I could barely communicate with the majority of
the team as they had been to Urdu-medium schools. Most of the boys would gang up
and make fun of me. I felt like an outsider, with this huge educational and cultural gap
between us. wider even than that found in the British class system. Their jokes. their
humour. the films they liked. their views of the world were all different to mine. It was
then that I began to realize how much resentment there was amongst those from Urdu
schools towards those from the English ones. I also realized why. despite having the
best sports facilities at Aitchison. its boys could never compete with those from poor
schools. The latter were much tougher and had a far greater hunger to succeed. Similarly
in hockey and squash (other sports that Pakistan has excelled in internationally). all the
stars came from the Urdu schools. However. I discovered that they were quick to learn
that the way up the social ladder was to acquire Western mannerisms. So most of the
cricketers loved shopping for English clothes and learning the English language.
preferably with an English accent. Some of the cricketers only started drinking alcohol
(which was banned in 1 977) because it was a Western. and hence upper-class. thing to
do.
National dress was another marker of cultural identity sabotaged by colonialism.
When I was a boy I remember one of my uncles asking a cousin of mine. who was
wearing shalwar kameez. why he was dressed like a servant. Another time I overheard a
friend of my mother talking about someone being an upstart because he had only
recently started wearing Western clothes. It was decades later. in the summer of 1 988
when I was trekking with a couple of English friends in the Karakoram. that I became
conscious of being dressed as a foreigner. while all the locals were in Pakistani clothes.
It suddenly dawned upon me - here I was. a national icon. a role model who drew
crowds wherever I went - and yet I was dressed like an outsider. Years later I was
embarrassed by the Pashtun tribesmen on my first visit to Waziristan who resolutely
insisted on speaking to me in Pashto despite the fact I did not speak much of their
language. They made a point of it to emphasize their pride in their culture; it is only in
the tribal area of Pakistan. where people are fiercely proud of the fact that they have
never been conquered. that they feel no need to borrow from anybody else's culture.
Colonialism only works if the colonizers are convinced of their superiority and the
colonized of their inferiority.
In contrast. the legacy of British colonialism is still strong amongst older or
retired army officers and bureaucrats. the Pakistani military and bureaucracy being
originally colonial constructs. There is an ingrained inferiority complex. I remember a
serving lieutenant-general saying to me: 'But. Imran. my dear chap. why do you insist
on wearing shalwar kameez when you look so good in a suit?' I am sure a lot of people
who wear Western clothes in Pakistan would like to wear shalwar kameez. especially in
the heat of the summer. but they just do not have the confidence. When I had an office
in the cancer hospital I founded in memory of my mother. in the early 1 990s. I ran the
marketing department there. I noticed that most of the regular donors were from the
trader class. who wore shalwar kameez. and decided the hospital marketing team should
also wear Pakistani dress. A couple of months later a member of the team asked
permission to revert to Western suits as he felt that the traders and other people
generally did not give him the same respect if he wore Pakistani clothes. He also felt he
had less confidence wearing our national clothes when he visited businessmen' s offices.
This complex worsened and since Musharraf's regime in the early part of the twenty-
first century and its superficial drive for westernization. even political candidates in
Pakistan. particularly in Sindh and Punjab. also felt the pressure to wear Western dress.
Many candidates have their publicity photographs taken in jacket and tie because they
feel Western suits make them appear more sophisticated and more educated to the
voters.
Retaining the language or dress of occupiers or colonizers has not been that
unusual throughout history. For instance. after Sicily won independence from the Arabs
in the eleventh century. Arabic remained the language of the island's courts for another