CHAPTER 13

The preoperational stage is associated with toddlerhood and the preschool

age (two to seven years old). The term preoperational is used to suggest that during

this stage the child has not yet grasped the concept of cause and effect. Instead, the

child tends to think in magical terms. Magical thinking is characterized by an

absence of the recognition of the importance of the laws of nature. Four-year-old

Daniel sees no problem when a magician instructs a carpet to fly.

164 PSYCHOLOGY

Two additional characteristics of the preoperational stage are anthropomorphic

thinking and egocentrism. Anthropomorphic thinking is characterized

by a tendency to explain natural events in terms of human behavior. Consequently,

leaves turn various colors in the fall because Jack Frost paints them. The

huffing and puffing of an invisible giant is the cause of a windy day.

Egocentrism is a tendency to perceive oneself as existing at the center of the

universe. Everything revolves around the self. Consequently, five-year-old

Danielle, when riding in a car at night with her parents, asks, "Why is the Moon

following us?" Two days later Danielle falls and scrapes her knee. She believes that

her mother can feel the pain. Six-year-old Edward thinks that people in a foreign

country on the other side of the world are upside down. He reasons that if the

world is round, and we're right side up, then they have to be upside down. If an

adult tells Edward that the people are right side up, he will be confused.

(a) The term preoperational is used to suggest that during this stage the child has not yet

grasped the concept of and .

(b) What kind of thinking is characterized by a tendency to explain natural events in terms

of human behavior?

universe.

Answers: (a) cause; effect; (b) Anthropomorphic thinking; (c) Egocentrism.

The concrete operations stage is associated with middle childhood (seven

to twelve years old). The child at this stage can think in terms of cause and effect.

However, most of the thinking is "concrete," meaning that cognitive processes at

this stage deal well with what can be seen or otherwise experienced, not with

abstractions. For example, eight-year-old Jack can easily understand that 3 + 7 =

10 because, if necessary, this can be demonstrated with physical objects such as

pennies or chips. On the other hand, Jack can't grasp that x + 8 = 11 in problem

1, and that x + 8 = 24 in problem 2. If Jack is told that x is a variable, and that it

can have more than one numerical value in different problems, he will have a hard

time appreciating this fact. In brief, Jack can understand arithmetic, but he can't

understand algebra.

During the stage of concrete operations, children are usually interested in how

clocks work, how measurements are made, and why this causes that to happen.

They often like to assemble things. A game such as Monopoly, with its play

money, property deeds, and tokens, is attractive.

The formal operations stage is associated with adolescence and adulthood.

(Adolescence begins at twelve or thirteen years old). The formal operations

stage is characterized by the ability to think in abstract terms. The

adolescent and adult can understand algebra. Subjects such as philosophy, with its

Developmental Psychology: How Children Become Adults 165

various viewpoints on life, become accessible. Not only thinking, but thinking

about thinking is possible. This is called metathought. It is what we are doing

in this section of the book.

Formal operational thought makes it possible to use both inductive and

deductive logic (discussed in chapter 9). The adult can reflect, analyze, and rethink

ideas and viewpoints. This kind of thought opens up avenues of mental flexibility

not available to children.

Piaget's theory presents a blueprint for cognitive development that captures the

spectrum of thinking from its primitive beginning to its most sophisticated level.

(a) Cognitive processes associated with the concrete operations stage deal well with what

can be seen or otherwise experienced, not with .

(b) A child functioning at the concrete operations stage can understand arithmetic, but will

usually have a difficult time understanding .

(d) Formal operational thought makes it possible to use both and

logic.

Answers: (a) abstractions; (b) algebra; (c) metathought; (d) inductive; deductive.

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development: From a Power

Orientation to Living by Principles

Lawrence Kohlberg, a developmental psychologist associated with Harvard University,

has drawn from Piaget's theory of cognitive development and applied it to

moral development. Moral development is the development of the individual's

sense of right and wrong. A high level of moral development is built on a foundation

of cognitive development. But, of course, more is involved.

Prior to Kohlberg's actual research with subjects, theories of moral development

were based largely on speculation. The philosophers Plato and Immanuel

Kant believed that the moral sense is inborn, that it is a given of the human mind.

On the other hand, the philosophers Aristotle and John Locke assumed that moral

development requires learning and experience. Kohlberg's approach tends to

favor the learning hypothesis. Human beings acquire a moral sense by learning to

think clearly, by the example of role models, and by social reinforcement.

(a) Moral development is the development of the individual's sense of and

166 PSYCHOLOGY

(b) The philosophers Plato and Immanuel Kant believed that the moral sense is

requires and .

Answers: (a) right; wrong; (b) inborn; (c) learning; experience.

According to Kohlberg, there are three principal levels of moral development:

(1) the premoral level, (2) the conventional level, and (3) the principled

level. (There are six stages associated with the three levels, two stages to

each level. The differences between the stages are subtle, and they will not be

specified.)

The premoral level is associated with early childhood (from about two to

seven years old). The theme of this level is power orientation, meaning that to

a child thinking at this level, "might makes right." The parents are seen as "right"

because they are bigger and stronger than the child. Five-year-old Kenneth is considering

whether or not he should steal a one-dollar bill from his mother's purse.

His hesitation, if there is any, is based on the fear of being caught, not on guilt. He

is amoral, meaning that he has no actual moral sense, no internal feeling that he

is wrong to do something that is forbidden.

(a) According to Kohlberg, there are how many principal levels of moral development?

(b) Thinking that "might makes right" is what kind of an orientation to morality?

of guilt.

Answers: (a) Three; (b) A power orientation; (c) amoral.

The conventional level is associated with late childhood and adolescence

(seven to eighteen years old). Also, many, probably most, adults continue to operate

at the conventional level, never progressing to the principled level. The theme

of the conventional level is "law and order." Right is right because human beings

have codes of conduct and written laws. Fifteen-year-old Sally identifies with her

family. The family has a certain religion, certain attitudes, and well-defined

notions of what is and is not socially acceptable behavior. Sally doesn't question

the family's values. She doesn't examine or challenge them. She is operating at the

conventional level. Thirty-four-year-old Kelvin pays his taxes, has earned an honorable

discharge from the army, and thinks of himself as a "good citizen." Kelvin,

like Sally, is operating at the conventional level.

Developmental Psychology: How Children Become Adults 167

The principled level is associated with a relatively small percentage of adults.

These are people who think for themselves about what is right and wrong. They

are not chaotic in their thought processes. They are logical and clear sighted. In

certain cases, they may decide that a law or a group of laws are unjust, and they

may rebel. The founding fathers of the United States, men such as George Washington

and Thomas Jefferson, fall in this last category. Saints, great leaders, and

prophets also fall in the principled category.

It is clear that not all adults outgrow even the first level, the premoral level.

Dictators who rule by brute force, who punish in accordance with their personal

whims, operate at the premoral level.

(a) The theme of the conventional level of moral development is " and

(b) Saints, great leaders, and prophets are associated with what level of moral development?

Answers: (a) law; order; (b) The principled level.

Parental Style: Becoming an Effective Parent

Whether it be psychosexual, psychosocial, cognitive, or moral, development is

greatly influenced what parents say and do. The general approach taken toward

child rearing by a parent is called parental style. Research conducted by developmental

psychologists such as Stanley Coopersmith and Diane Baumrind, both

affiliated with the University of California, suggests that there are two primary

dimensions of parental style. These are: (1) authoritarian-permissive and (2)

accepting-rejecting.

The authoritarian-permissive dimension consists of bipolar opposites. At

the one extreme, parents who manifest an authoritarian style are highly controlling,

demanding, possessive, and overprotective. At the other extreme, parents

who manifest a permissive style are easygoing, overly agreeable, detached, and

easily manipulated by the child or adolescent. Such parents tend to avoid setting

well-defined limits on behavior.

(a) There are how many primary dimensions of parental style?

(b) Parents who manifest an style are highly controlling, demanding, possessive,

and overprotective.

and easily manipulated.

Answers: (a) Two; (b) authoritarian; (c) permissive.

168 PSYCHOLOGY

The accepting-rejecting dimension also consists of bipolar opposites. At

the one extreme, parents who manifest an accepting style provide the child with

unconditional love, meaning that love is not withdrawn when a child's behavior

is unacceptable. The child is loved for being himself or herself, and affection

does not stop just because the parent is sometimes disappointed in something the

child has done. There is much confusion about this particular point. Unconditional

love does not mean unconditional acceptance of all behavior. It is possible

to reject unacceptable behavior without rejecting the whole person.

Parents who manifest a rejecting style provide the child with either conditional

love or no love at all. Conditional love is characterized by providing the

tokens of love (e.g., kisses, hugs, and praise) only when they have been earned by

certain behaviors such as getting good grades, doing chores, and being polite. A

parent who provides no love seldom, if ever, brings forth demonstrations of love

in either words or actions. The child acquires the impression that the parent

wishes he or she had never been born.

(a) Love that is not withdrawn when a child's behavior is unacceptable is called

love.

(b) Parents who manifest a rejecting style provide the child with either love

or no love at all.

Answers: (a) unconditional; (b) conditional.

The two dimensions generate five distinct categories of parental style:

(1) authoritarian-accepting, (2) permissive-accepting, (3) authoritarian-rejecting,

Developmental Psychology: How Children Become Adults 169

Accepting

Rejecting

Authoritarian Permissive

Accepting-rejecting

dimension

Authoritarianpermissive

dimension

The two dimensions of parental style.

(4) permissive-rejecting, and (5) democratic-accepting. The first four styles are all

flawed, and each of them is likely to generate difficulties in the child's adjustment

to life. The fifth style is the optimal style. The word democratic is used to indicate

an optimal midpoint on the authoritarian-permissive dimension. Parents who

manifest a democratic style give a child real options. The child is allowed to make

choices and important decisions. However, the democratic parent also sets realistic

limits. If the child's choices are unacceptable and likely to create eventual problems

for the child, then the democratic parent draws a line and is capable of being firm.

Research suggests that a parent who manifests a democratic-accepting style

tends to induce optimal social behaviors in the child. This style tends to nurture the

intelligence, creativity, emotional adjustment, and self-esteem of the child.

(a) The two dimensions of parental style generate how many distinct categories of parental

style?

(b) The democratic-accepting style is the parental style.

Answers: (a) Five; (b) optimal.

SELF-TEST

1. The basic unit of heredity is the

a. chromosome

b. gene

c. trisomy 21 pattern

d. ribonucleic acid (RNA) anomaly

2. From seven weeks to birth, the new being is called

a. a fetus

b. an embryo

c. a zygote

d. a neonate

3. According to Freud's usage, psychosexual energy is referred to as

a. libido

b. erotic ambivalence

c. metabolism

d. genital potency

4. The Oedipus complex is associated with what psychosexual stage?

a. The oral stage

b. The anal stage

c. The genital stage

d. The latency stage

170 PSYCHOLOGY

5. A toddler with a particular positive psychosocial trait will be interested in

exploring the immediate world and display an interest in novel stimulation.

What is this trait?

a. Autonomy

b. Identity

c. Intimacy

d. Generativity

6. An older person with a particular positive psychosocial trait can face approaching

death with a certain amount of acceptance. What is this trait?

a. Generativity

b. Isolation

c. Identity

d. Integrity

7. What method did Piaget use to study the child's mind?

a. The experimental method

b. The survey method

c. The phenomenological method

d. The correlational method

8. Magical thinking, anthropomorphic thinking, and egocentrism are associated

with what stage of cognitive development?

a. Trust versus mistrust

b. The sensorimotor stage

c. The formal operations stage

d. The preoperational stage

9. What level of moral development is associated with a law and order orientation?

a. The premoral level

b. The preconventional level

c. The conventional level

d. The principled level

10. Research suggests that a parent who manifests what style tends to induce optimal

social behaviors in the child?

a. Authoritarian-accepting

b. Democratic-accepting

c. Permissive-accepting

d. Authoritarian-rejecting

Developmental Psychology: How Children Become Adults 171

ANSWERS TO THE SELF-TEST

1-b 2-a 3-a 4-d 5-a 6-d 7-c 8-d 9-c 10-b

ANSWERS TO THE TRUE-OR-FALSE PREVIEW QUIZ

1. True.

2. True.

3. False. In psychosocial development, the stage of identity versus role confusion is associated

with adolescence.

4. False. Cognitive development focuses primarily on the way the child thinks.

5. False. An authoritarian parent tends to be highly controlling, demanding, possessive,

and overprotective.

KEY TERMS

172 PSYCHOLOGY

accepting style

accepting-rejecting dimension

adolescent psychology

amoral

anal stage

anthropomorphic thinking

authoritarian style

authoritarian-permissive dimension

autonomy versus shame and doubt

child psychology

chromosomal anomaly

chromosome

cognitive development

concrete operations stage

conditional love

conventional level

democratic

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

developmental psychology

Down's syndrome

ectoderm

egocentrism

Electra complex

embryo

endoderm

epistemology

erogenous zones

fetus

fixation of libido

formal operations stage

gene

generativity versus self-absorption

genital stage

I-it relationship

I-thou relationship

identity versus role confusion

industry versus inferiority

infant

infantile depression

initiative versus guilt

Developmental Psychology: How Children Become Adults 173

integrity versus despair

intimacy versus isolation

latency stage

libido

magical thinking

meiosis

mesoderm

metathought

mitosis

moral development

neonate

Oedipus complex

oral stage

ovum

parental style

permissive style

phallic stage

phenomenological method

power orientation

premoral level

preoperational stage

principled level

psychosexual development

psychosocial development

rejecting style

sensorimotor stage

social world

sperm (or spermatozoon)

trisomy 21

trust versus mistrust

unconditional love

zygote

174

12 Sex and Love: Are You

in the Mood?

PREVIEW QUIZ

True or False

1. T F Some individuals are capable of multiple orgasms.

2. T F Sexual dysfunctions always have a biological basis.

3. T F Impotence is a somewhat out-of-date term for male erectile disorder.

4. T F Fetishism refers to sexual contact between a human being and an animal.

5. T F The concept of romantic love is an outgrowth of ancient Greek traditions

associated with the teachings of the philosopher Plato.

(Answers can be found on page 189.)

Development, the subject matter of chapter 11, leads the individual to

both biological and psychological maturation. And with maturation there

arrives an interest in both sex and love. In this chapter we explore many

aspects of these important topics.

Sex and Love: Are You in the Mood? 175

Objectives

After completing this chapter, you will be able to

• describe the human four-stage sexual response cycle;

• identify the principal female sexual dysfunctions;

• identify the principal male sexual dysfunctions;

• identify dysfunctions that affect either sex;

• specify various kind of sexual variance;

• explain the concepts of intimacy and romantic love.

A popular song of the 1930s was titled "I'm in the Mood for Love." Although

seventy years have elapsed since that particular song was a hit, the concept of

"being in the mood" is still associated with sex and love. More often than not, it

requires a receptive frame of mind as well as a particular attitude in order to be

excited by a given partner.

The sexual drive, as we have seen in earlier chapters, has its roots in biological

factors. However, it often interacts with romantic love, which is dominated by psychological

factors. Together, sex and love play important roles in human behavior.

Songwriters are aware of this point. Every other popular song is about either the

wonderful aspects of being in love or the sadness associated with the loss of love.

The purpose of this chapter is to explore the psychology of sexual behavior.

Unfortunately, although sexual behavior is a natural aspect of behavior in general,

there are many ways in which sexual behavior can be both maladaptive and unsatisfying.

Even "doing what comes naturally" requires a certain amount of learning

and understanding.

(a) The concept of "being in the mood" is still associated with and

(b) Unfortunately, although sexual behavior is a natural aspect of behavior in general, there

are many ways in which sexual behavior can be both and .

Answers: (a) sex; love; (b) maladaptive; unsatisfying.

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