Indus Valley Civilisation
Key Features
Town planning and
Architecture
Town Planning
Grid Pattern: Towns were in a rectangular grid pattern with roads at right angles.
Use of Burnt Bricks: Used burnt mud bricks joined with gypsum mortar (In contemporary Egypt dried bricks were used).
Underground drainage system connecting all houses to the street drains.
Architecture
Included large citadels, granaries, the famous Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro, and multi-story buildings that showcased their architectural prowess.
Agriculture
Agriculture: Fields were ploughed using a wooden ploughshare.
Main crops: Wheat, Rice, millets, barley, lentil, chickpea and sesame etc. They were earliest to produce cotton in the world (Greeks called it Sindon).
Domestication of Animals: Oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs, dogs, cats, asses, humped bulls camels were domesticated.
Elephants & Rhinoceros were well known to them.
Craft
They were skilled in spinning, boat-making, seal making, terracotta manufacturing (potter's wheel), goldsmiths, bead making.
The variety of materials used to make beads is remarkable: stones like carnelian (of a beautiful red colour), jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite; metals like copper, bronze and gold; and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay.
Seals made mostly from Steatite primarily used for commercial purposes, as amulets, as form of identification, for educational purposes as well.
Iron was not known to the people.
Arts
Bronze Casting: Harappa used 'lost wax' technique or Cire Perdue for bronze casting. E.g., 'Dancing Girl' standing in a 'tribhanga' dancing posture.
Stone Statues: Bearded man (made of Steatite) found in Mohenjo-daro interpreted as a priest. Red sandstone figure of a male torso (found in Harappa).
Terracotta Figures: E.g., Mother Goddess, mask of horned deity, toys, etc
Trade and Commerce
Internal and foreign trade: The use of standardized weights and measures facilitated trade and commerce.
Foreign trade was mainly conducted with Mesopotamia, Afghanistan and Iran.
Mesopotamian records called Indus region as Meluha and mentions two intermediate trading stations i.e., Dilmun (Bahrain) & Makan (Makran coast).
They exported grain, jewellery and pottery and imported thin copper and precious stones.
Religion & Culture
Deities: They worshiped male deity Pasupati (proto-Siva) represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture and female deity Mother Goddess represented in terracotta figurines. Phallus (Linga) worship was also prevalent.
No temples have been found from any of the Harappan sites.
Nature Worship: Trees (e.g., pipal) and animals were also worshipped by Harappans.
Writing System
Pictographic script: Written in boustrophedon style i.e., writing in right to left in one line & then left to right in next line.
However it has been not deciphered yet.
Significance of Discovery of Harappa Civilization
Provides earliest evidence of settled life in South Asia. Advanced urban planning influenced later urban development concepts. Provides earliest evidence of extensive trade networks & cultural exchanges in ancient world. Addressing Climate change Mitigation as it is believed IVC declined due to environmental changes.
Challenges Regarding Harappa Civilization
Undeciphered Writing System: Limits our understanding of the language, culture, and beliefs of the Harappa Civilization.
New Evidences for Harappa Civilization
New Archaeological excavation reveals 5,200-year-old Harappan settlement at Padta Bet in Kachchh, Gujarat.
DNA analysis of skeletons from Rakhigarhi revealed that DNA of the Harappans has continued till today and a majority of South Asian population appears to be their descendants.
Due to trade and cultural contacts of the Harappans with distant regions, there is a mixture of genes in small quantities.
Lack of Clear Hierarchies: While the Harappa Civilization had cities and residential segregation, there is no definitive evidence of a centralized political authority or a clear social hierarchy.
Role of Women: While there are some depictions of women in art and seals, their exact status and rights remain unclear.
Decline of Harappa Civilization: Many factors such as decline in soil fertility, earthquake, climate change, and invasion by Aryan etc. are attributed decline of Harappa civilization however exact reason is unknown.
Challenges About Excavation
Limited Excavation: Political and geographic factors, such as the India-Pakistan border and local development, have hindered more extensive archaeological work.
Recovering and Classifying Artifacts: Valuable artefacts that are found intact were either lost in the past or hoarded and never retrieved.
Destruction of sites: The sites of the Indus Valley Civilization were buried for thousands of years, and many have been subject to damage due to flooding, erosion, or modern development.
Conclusion
The Harappa Civilization, one of the earliest and most advanced urban societies of the ancient world declined by 1300 BCE. However, it left its mark in urban planning, craftsmanship, and metallurgy etc. Despite the mysteries surrounding its undeciphered script and sudden decline, the Harappans contributed significantly to the cultural and historical foundation of South Asia.
Major Cities/Sites & Findings
Site/city Location Discovered/Excavated by Major Findings
Harappa Pakistan Daya Ram Sahni in 1921
Red sandstone Male torso, Stone symbols of Lingam, Granaries, Mother Goddess etc.
Mohenjo-Daro Pakistan R D Banerjee in 1922
Town Planning, Citadels, Drainage system, Great Bath
Ganweriwala Cholistan area of Pakistan Rafique Mughal in 1973
Terracotta unicorn figurines, Twisted clay tablet with Indus script etc.
Rakhigarhi
Haryana in India First discovered in the 1960s by Archeological Survey of India.
Granary, cemetery, drains, terracotta bricks.
Dholavira Rann of Kachchh (Gujarat) Jagat Pati Joshi in 1968
Unique water harnessing system and its storm water drainage system, only site divided in 3 parts, Megalithic stone circle.
Lothal Gujrat S Rao in 1955
Dockyard, fire altars
Key Features
Town planning and
Architecture
Town Planning
Grid Pattern: Towns were in a rectangular grid pattern with roads at right angles.
Use of Burnt Bricks: Used burnt mud bricks joined with gypsum mortar (In contemporary Egypt dried bricks were used).
Underground drainage system connecting all houses to the street drains.
Architecture
Included large citadels, granaries, the famous Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro, and multi-story buildings that showcased their architectural prowess.
Agriculture
Agriculture: Fields were ploughed using a wooden ploughshare.
Main crops: Wheat, Rice, millets, barley, lentil, chickpea and sesame etc. They were earliest to produce cotton in the world (Greeks called it Sindon).
Domestication of Animals: Oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs, dogs, cats, asses, humped bulls camels were domesticated.
Elephants & Rhinoceros were well known to them.
Craft
They were skilled in spinning, boat-making, seal making, terracotta manufacturing (potter's wheel), goldsmiths, bead making.
The variety of materials used to make beads is remarkable: stones like carnelian (of a beautiful red colour), jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite; metals like copper, bronze and gold; and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay.
Seals made mostly from Steatite primarily used for commercial purposes, as amulets, as form of identification, for educational purposes as well.
Iron was not known to the people.
Arts
Bronze Casting: Harappa used 'lost wax' technique or Cire Perdue for bronze casting. E.g., 'Dancing Girl' standing in a 'tribhanga' dancing posture.
Stone Statues: Bearded man (made of Steatite) found in Mohenjo-daro interpreted as a priest. Red sandstone figure of a male torso (found in Harappa).
Terracotta Figures: E.g., Mother Goddess, mask of horned deity, toys, etc
Trade and Commerce
Internal and foreign trade: The use of standardized weights and measures facilitated trade and commerce.
Foreign trade was mainly conducted with Mesopotamia, Afghanistan and Iran.
Mesopotamian records called Indus region as Meluha and mentions two intermediate trading stations i.e., Dilmun (Bahrain) & Makan (Makran coast).
They exported grain, jewellery and pottery and imported thin copper and precious stones.
Religion & Culture
Deities: They worshiped male deity Pasupati (proto-Siva) represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture and female deity Mother Goddess represented in terracotta figurines. Phallus (Linga) worship was also prevalent.
No temples have been found from any of the Harappan sites.
Nature Worship: Trees (e.g., pipal) and animals were also worshipped by Harappans.
Writing System
Pictographic script: Written in boustrophedon style i.e., writing in right to left in one line & then left to right in next line.
However it has been not deciphered yet.
Significance of Discovery of Harappa Civilization
Provides earliest evidence of settled life in South Asia. Advanced urban planning influenced later urban development concepts. Provides earliest evidence of extensive trade networks & cultural exchanges in ancient world. Addressing Climate change Mitigation as it is believed IVC declined due to environmental changes.
Challenges Regarding Harappa Civilization
Undeciphered Writing System: Limits our understanding of the language, culture, and beliefs of the Harappa Civilization.
New Evidences for Harappa Civilization
New Archaeological excavation reveals 5,200-year-old Harappan settlement at Padta Bet in Kachchh, Gujarat.
DNA analysis of skeletons from Rakhigarhi revealed that DNA of the Harappans has continued till today and a majority of South Asian population appears to be their descendants.
Due to trade and cultural contacts of the Harappans with distant regions, there is a mixture of genes in small quantities.
Lack of Clear Hierarchies: While the Harappa Civilization had cities and residential segregation, there is no definitive evidence of a centralized political authority or a clear social hierarchy.
Role of Women: While there are some depictions of women in art and seals, their exact status and rights remain unclear.
Decline of Harappa Civilization: Many factors such as decline in soil fertility, earthquake, climate change, and invasion by Aryan etc. are attributed decline of Harappa civilization however exact reason is unknown.
Challenges About Excavation
Limited Excavation: Political and geographic factors, such as the India-Pakistan border and local development, have hindered more extensive archaeological work.
Recovering and Classifying Artifacts: Valuable artefacts that are found intact were either lost in the past or hoarded and never retrieved.
Destruction of sites: The sites of the Indus Valley Civilization were buried for thousands of years, and many have been subject to damage due to flooding, erosion, or modern development.
Conclusion
The Harappa Civilization, one of the earliest and most advanced urban societies of the ancient world declined by 1300 BCE. However, it left its mark in urban planning, craftsmanship, and metallurgy etc. Despite the mysteries surrounding its undeciphered script and sudden decline, the Harappans contributed significantly to the cultural and historical foundation of South Asia.
Major Cities/Sites & Findings
Site/city Location Discovered/Excavated by Major Findings
Harappa Pakistan Daya Ram Sahni in 1921
Red sandstone Male torso, Stone symbols of Lingam, Granaries, Mother Goddess etc.
Mohenjo-Daro Pakistan R D Banerjee in 1922
Town Planning, Citadels, Drainage system, Great Bath
Ganweriwala Cholistan area of Pakistan Rafique Mughal in 1973
Terracotta unicorn figurines, Twisted clay tablet with Indus script etc.
Rakhigarhi
Haryana in India First discovered in the 1960s by Archeological Survey of India.
Granary, cemetery, drains, terracotta bricks.
Dholavira Rann of Kachchh (Gujarat) Jagat Pati Joshi in 1968
Unique water harnessing system and its storm water drainage system, only site divided in 3 parts, Megalithic stone circle.
Lothal Gujrat S Rao in 1955
Dockyard, fire altars
Key Features
Town planning and
Architecture
Town Planning
Grid Pattern: Towns were in a rectangular grid pattern with roads at right angles.
Use of Burnt Bricks: Used burnt mud bricks joined with gypsum mortar (In contemporary Egypt dried bricks were used).
Underground drainage system connecting all houses to the street drains.
Architecture
Included large citadels, granaries, the famous Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro, and multi-story buildings that showcased their architectural prowess.
Agriculture
Agriculture: Fields were ploughed using a wooden ploughshare.
Main crops: Wheat, Rice, millets, barley, lentil, chickpea and sesame etc. They were earliest to produce cotton in the world (Greeks called it Sindon).
Domestication of Animals: Oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs, dogs, cats, asses, humped bulls camels were domesticated.
Elephants & Rhinoceros were well known to them.
Craft
They were skilled in spinning, boat-making, seal making, terracotta manufacturing (potter's wheel), goldsmiths, bead making.
The variety of materials used to make beads is remarkable: stones like carnelian (of a beautiful red colour), jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite; metals like copper, bronze and gold; and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay.
Seals made mostly from Steatite primarily used for commercial purposes, as amulets, as form of identification, for educational purposes as well.
Iron was not known to the people.
Arts
Bronze Casting: Harappa used 'lost wax' technique or Cire Perdue for bronze casting. E.g., 'Dancing Girl' standing in a 'tribhanga' dancing posture.
Stone Statues: Bearded man (made of Steatite) found in Mohenjo-daro interpreted as a priest. Red sandstone figure of a male torso (found in Harappa).
Terracotta Figures: E.g., Mother Goddess, mask of horned deity, toys, etc
Trade and Commerce
Internal and foreign trade: The use of standardized weights and measures facilitated trade and commerce.
Foreign trade was mainly conducted with Mesopotamia, Afghanistan and Iran.
Mesopotamian records called Indus region as Meluha and mentions two intermediate trading stations i.e., Dilmun (Bahrain) & Makan (Makran coast).
They exported grain, jewellery and pottery and imported thin copper and precious stones.
Religion & Culture
Deities: They worshiped male deity Pasupati (proto-Siva) represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture and female deity Mother Goddess represented in terracotta figurines. Phallus (Linga) worship was also prevalent.
No temples have been found from any of the Harappan sites.
Nature Worship: Trees (e.g., pipal) and animals were also worshipped by Harappans.
Writing System
Pictographic script: Written in boustrophedon style i.e., writing in right to left in one line & then left to right in next line.
However it has been not deciphered yet.
Significance of Discovery of Harappa Civilization
Provides earliest evidence of settled life in South Asia. Advanced urban planning influenced later urban development concepts. Provides earliest evidence of extensive trade networks & cultural exchanges in ancient world. Addressing Climate change Mitigation as it is believed IVC declined due to environmental changes.
Challenges Regarding Harappa Civilization
Undeciphered Writing System: Limits our understanding of the language, culture, and beliefs of the Harappa Civilization.
New Evidences for Harappa Civilization
New Archaeological excavation reveals 5,200-year-old Harappan settlement at Padta Bet in Kachchh, Gujarat.
DNA analysis of skeletons from Rakhigarhi revealed that DNA of the Harappans has continued till today and a majority of South Asian population appears to be their descendants.
Due to trade and cultural contacts of the Harappans with distant regions, there is a mixture of genes in small quantities.
Lack of Clear Hierarchies: While the Harappa Civilization had cities and residential segregation, there is no definitive evidence of a centralized political authority or a clear social hierarchy.
Role of Women: While there are some depictions of women in art and seals, their exact status and rights remain unclear.
Decline of Harappa Civilization: Many factors such as decline in soil fertility, earthquake, climate change, and invasion by Aryan etc. are attributed decline of Harappa civilization however exact reason is unknown.
Challenges About Excavation
Limited Excavation: Political and geographic factors, such as the India-Pakistan border and local development, have hindered more extensive archaeological work.
Recovering and Classifying Artifacts: Valuable artefacts that are found intact were either lost in the past or hoarded and never retrieved.
Destruction of sites: The sites of the Indus Valley Civilization were buried for thousands of years, and many have been subject to damage due to flooding, erosion, or modern development.
Conclusion
The Harappa Civilization, one of the earliest and most advanced urban societies of the ancient world declined by 1300 BCE. However, it left its mark in urban planning, craftsmanship, and metallurgy etc. Despite the mysteries surrounding its undeciphered script and sudden decline, the Harappans contributed significantly to the cultural and historical foundation of South Asia.
Major Cities/Sites & Findings
Site/city Location Discovered/Excavated by Major Findings
Harappa Pakistan Daya Ram Sahni in 1921
Red sandstone Male torso, Stone symbols of Lingam, Granaries, Mother Goddess etc.
Mohenjo-Daro Pakistan R D Banerjee in 1922
Town Planning, Citadels, Drainage system, Great Bath
Ganweriwala Cholistan area of Pakistan Rafique Mughal in 1973
Terracotta unicorn figurines, Twisted clay tablet with Indus script etc.
Rakhigarhi
Haryana in India First discovered in the 1960s by Archeological Survey of India.
Granary, cemetery, drains, terracotta bricks.
Dholavira Rann of Kachchh (Gujarat) Jagat Pati Joshi in 1968
Unique water harnessing system and its storm water drainage system, only site divided in 3 parts, Megalithic stone circle.
Lothal Gujrat S Rao in 1955
Dockyard, fire altars
Key Features
Town planning and
Architecture
Town Planning
Grid Pattern: Towns were in a rectangular grid pattern with roads at right angles.
Use of Burnt Bricks: Used burnt mud bricks joined with gypsum mortar (In contemporary Egypt dried bricks were used).
Underground drainage system connecting all houses to the street drains.
Architecture
Included large citadels, granaries, the famous Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro, and multi-story buildings that showcased their architectural prowess.
Agriculture
Agriculture: Fields were ploughed using a wooden ploughshare.
Main crops: Wheat, Rice, millets, barley, lentil, chickpea and sesame etc. They were earliest to produce cotton in the world (Greeks called it Sindon).
Domestication of Animals: Oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs, dogs, cats, asses, humped bulls camels were domesticated.
Elephants & Rhinoceros were well known to them.
Craft
They were skilled in spinning, boat-making, seal making, terracotta manufacturing (potter's wheel), goldsmiths, bead making.
The variety of materials used to make beads is remarkable: stones like carnelian (of a beautiful red colour), jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite; metals like copper, bronze and gold; and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay.
Seals made mostly from Steatite primarily used for commercial purposes, as amulets, as form of identification, for educational purposes as well.
Iron was not known to the people.
Arts
Bronze Casting: Harappa used 'lost wax' technique or Cire Perdue for bronze casting. E.g., 'Dancing Girl' standing in a 'tribhanga' dancing posture.
Stone Statues: Bearded man (made of Steatite) found in Mohenjo-daro interpreted as a priest. Red sandstone figure of a male torso (found in Harappa).
Terracotta Figures: E.g., Mother Goddess, mask of horned deity, toys, etc
Trade and Commerce
Internal and foreign trade: The use of standardized weights and measures facilitated trade and commerce.
Foreign trade was mainly conducted with Mesopotamia, Afghanistan and Iran.
Mesopotamian records called Indus region as Meluha and mentions two intermediate trading stations i.e., Dilmun (Bahrain) & Makan (Makran coast).
They exported grain, jewellery and pottery and imported thin copper and precious stones.
Religion & Culture
Deities: They worshiped male deity Pasupati (proto-Siva) represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture and female deity Mother Goddess represented in terracotta figurines. Phallus (Linga) worship was also prevalent.
No temples have been found from any of the Harappan sites.
Nature Worship: Trees (e.g., pipal) and animals were also worshipped by Harappans.
Writing System
Pictographic script: Written in boustrophedon style i.e., writing in right to left in one line & then left to right in next line.
However it has been not deciphered yet.
Significance of Discovery of Harappa Civilization
Provides earliest evidence of settled life in South Asia. Advanced urban planning influenced later urban development concepts. Provides earliest evidence of extensive trade networks & cultural exchanges in ancient world. Addressing Climate change Mitigation as it is believed IVC declined due to environmental changes.
Challenges Regarding Harappa Civilization
Undeciphered Writing System: Limits our understanding of the language, culture, and beliefs of the Harappa Civilization.
New Evidences for Harappa Civilization
New Archaeological excavation reveals 5,200-year-old Harappan settlement at Padta Bet in Kachchh, Gujarat.
DNA analysis of skeletons from Rakhigarhi revealed that DNA of the Harappans has continued till today and a majority of South Asian population appears to be their descendants.
Due to trade and cultural contacts of the Harappans with distant regions, there is a mixture of genes in small quantities.
Lack of Clear Hierarchies: While the Harappa Civilization had cities and residential segregation, there is no definitive evidence of a centralized political authority or a clear social hierarchy.
Role of Women: While there are some depictions of women in art and seals, their exact status and rights remain unclear.
Decline of Harappa Civilization: Many factors such as decline in soil fertility, earthquake, climate change, and invasion by Aryan etc. are attributed decline of Harappa civilization however exact reason is unknown.
Challenges About Excavation
Limited Excavation: Political and geographic factors, such as the India-Pakistan border and local development, have hindered more extensive archaeological work.
Recovering and Classifying Artifacts: Valuable artefacts that are found intact were either lost in the past or hoarded and never retrieved.
Destruction of sites: The sites of the Indus Valley Civilization were buried for thousands of years, and many have been subject to damage due to flooding, erosion, or modern development.
Conclusion
The Harappa Civilization, one of the earliest and most advanced urban societies of the ancient world declined by 1300 BCE. However, it left its mark in urban planning, craftsmanship, and metallurgy etc. Despite the mysteries surrounding its undeciphered script and sudden decline, the Harappans contributed significantly to the cultural and historical foundation of South Asia.
Major Cities/Sites & Findings
Site/city Location Discovered/Excavated by Major Findings
Harappa Pakistan Daya Ram Sahni in 1921
Red sandstone Male torso, Stone symbols of Lingam, Granaries, Mother Goddess etc.
Mohenjo-Daro Pakistan R D Banerjee in 1922
Town Planning, Citadels, Drainage system, Great Bath
Ganweriwala Cholistan area of Pakistan Rafique Mughal in 1973
Terracotta unicorn figurines, Twisted clay tablet with Indus script etc.
Rakhigarhi
Haryana in India First discovered in the 1960s by Archeological Survey of India.
Granary, cemetery, drains, terracotta bricks.
Dholavira Rann of Kachchh (Gujarat) Jagat Pati Joshi in 1968
Unique water harnessing system and its storm water drainage system, only site divided in 3 parts, Megalithic stone circle.
Lothal Gujrat S Rao in 1955
Dockyard, fire altars
Key Features
Town planning and
Architecture
Town Planning
Grid Pattern: Towns were in a rectangular grid pattern with roads at right angles.
Use of Burnt Bricks: Used burnt mud bricks joined with gypsum mortar (In contemporary Egypt dried bricks were used).
Underground drainage system connecting all houses to the street drains.
Architecture
Included large citadels, granaries, the famous Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro, and multi-story buildings that showcased their architectural prowess.
Agriculture
Agriculture: Fields were ploughed using a wooden ploughshare.
Main crops: Wheat, Rice, millets, barley, lentil, chickpea and sesame etc. They were earliest to produce cotton in the world (Greeks called it Sindon).
Domestication of Animals: Oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs, dogs, cats, asses, humped bulls camels were domesticated.
Elephants & Rhinoceros were well known to them.
Craft
They were skilled in spinning, boat-making, seal making, terracotta manufacturing (potter's wheel), goldsmiths, bead making.
The variety of materials used to make beads is remarkable: stones like carnelian (of a beautiful red colour), jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite; metals like copper, bronze and gold; and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay.
Seals made mostly from Steatite primarily used for commercial purposes, as amulets, as form of identification, for educational purposes as well.
Iron was not known to the people.
Arts
Bronze Casting: Harappa used 'lost wax' technique or Cire Perdue for bronze casting. E.g., 'Dancing Girl' standing in a 'tribhanga' dancing posture.
Stone Statues: Bearded man (made of Steatite) found in Mohenjo-daro interpreted as a priest. Red sandstone figure of a male torso (found in Harappa).
Terracotta Figures: E.g., Mother Goddess, mask of horned deity, toys, etc
Trade and Commerce
Internal and foreign trade: The use of standardized weights and measures facilitated trade and commerce.
Foreign trade was mainly conducted with Mesopotamia, Afghanistan and Iran.
Mesopotamian records called Indus region as Meluha and mentions two intermediate trading stations i.e., Dilmun (Bahrain) & Makan (Makran coast).
They exported grain, jewellery and pottery and imported thin copper and precious stones.
Religion & Culture
Deities: They worshiped male deity Pasupati (proto-Siva) represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture and female deity Mother Goddess represented in terracotta figurines. Phallus (Linga) worship was also prevalent.
No temples have been found from any of the Harappan sites.
Nature Worship: Trees (e.g., pipal) and animals were also worshipped by Harappans.
Writing System
Pictographic script: Written in boustrophedon style i.e., writing in right to left in one line & then left to right in next line.
However it has been not deciphered yet.
Significance of Discovery of Harappa Civilization
Provides earliest evidence of settled life in South Asia. Advanced urban planning influenced later urban development concepts. Provides earliest evidence of extensive trade networks & cultural exchanges in ancient world. Addressing Climate change Mitigation as it is believed IVC declined due to environmental changes.
Challenges Regarding Harappa Civilization
Undeciphered Writing System: Limits our understanding of the language, culture, and beliefs of the Harappa Civilization.
New Evidences for Harappa Civilization
New Archaeological excavation reveals 5,200-year-old Harappan settlement at Padta Bet in Kachchh, Gujarat.
DNA analysis of skeletons from Rakhigarhi revealed that DNA of the Harappans has continued till today and a majority of South Asian population appears to be their descendants.
Due to trade and cultural contacts of the Harappans with distant regions, there is a mixture of genes in small quantities.
Lack of Clear Hierarchies: While the Harappa Civilization had cities and residential segregation, there is no definitive evidence of a centralized political authority or a clear social hierarchy.
Role of Women: While there are some depictions of women in art and seals, their exact status and rights remain unclear.
Decline of Harappa Civilization: Many factors such as decline in soil fertility, earthquake, climate change, and invasion by Aryan etc. are attributed decline of Harappa civilization however exact reason is unknown.
Challenges About Excavation
Limited Excavation: Political and geographic factors, such as the India-Pakistan border and local development, have hindered more extensive archaeological work.
Recovering and Classifying Artifacts: Valuable artefacts that are found intact were either lost in the past or hoarded and never retrieved.
Destruction of sites: The sites of the Indus Valley Civilization were buried for thousands of years, and many have been subject to damage due to flooding, erosion, or modern development.
Conclusion
The Harappa Civilization, one of the earliest and most advanced urban societies of the ancient world declined by 1300 BCE. However, it left its mark in urban planning, craftsmanship, and metallurgy etc. Despite the mysteries surrounding its undeciphered script and sudden decline, the Harappans contributed significantly to the cultural and historical foundation of South Asia.
Major Cities/Sites & Findings
Site/city Location Discovered/Excavated by Major Findings
Harappa Pakistan Daya Ram Sahni in 1921
Red sandstone Male torso, Stone symbols of Lingam, Granaries, Mother Goddess etc.
Mohenjo-Daro Pakistan R D Banerjee in 1922
Town Planning, Citadels, Drainage system, Great Bath
Ganweriwala Cholistan area of Pakistan Rafique Mughal in 1973
Terracotta unicorn figurines, Twisted clay tablet with Indus script etc.
Rakhigarhi
Haryana in India First discovered in the 1960s by Archeological Survey of India.
Granary, cemetery, drains, terracotta bricks.
Dholavira Rann of Kachchh (Gujarat) Jagat Pati Joshi in 1968
Unique water harnessing system and its storm water drainage system, only site divided in 3 parts, Megalithic stone circle.
Lothal Gujrat S Rao in 1955
Dockyard, fire altars
Key Features
Town planning and
Architecture
Town Planning
Grid Pattern: Towns were in a rectangular grid pattern with roads at right angles.
Use of Burnt Bricks: Used burnt mud bricks joined with gypsum mortar (In contemporary Egypt dried bricks were used).
Underground drainage system connecting all houses to the street drains.
Architecture
Included large citadels, granaries, the famous Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro, and multi-story buildings that showcased their architectural prowess.
Agriculture
Agriculture: Fields were ploughed using a wooden ploughshare.
Main crops: Wheat, Rice, millets, barley, lentil, chickpea and sesame etc. They were earliest to produce cotton in the world (Greeks called it Sindon).
Domestication of Animals: Oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs, dogs, cats, asses, humped bulls camels were domesticated.
Elephants & Rhinoceros were well known to them.
Craft
They were skilled in spinning, boat-making, seal making, terracotta manufacturing (potter's wheel), goldsmiths, bead making.
The variety of materials used to make beads is remarkable: stones like carnelian (of a beautiful red colour), jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite; metals like copper, bronze and gold; and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay.
Seals made mostly from Steatite primarily used for commercial purposes, as amulets, as form of identification, for educational purposes as well.
Iron was not known to the people.
Arts
Bronze Casting: Harappa used 'lost wax' technique or Cire Perdue for bronze casting. E.g., 'Dancing Girl' standing in a 'tribhanga' dancing posture.
Stone Statues: Bearded man (made of Steatite) found in Mohenjo-daro interpreted as a priest. Red sandstone figure of a male torso (found in Harappa).
Terracotta Figures: E.g., Mother Goddess, mask of horned deity, toys, etc
Trade and Commerce
Internal and foreign trade: The use of standardized weights and measures facilitated trade and commerce.
Foreign trade was mainly conducted with Mesopotamia, Afghanistan and Iran.
Mesopotamian records called Indus region as Meluha and mentions two intermediate trading stations i.e., Dilmun (Bahrain) & Makan (Makran coast).
They exported grain, jewellery and pottery and imported thin copper and precious stones.
Religion & Culture
Deities: They worshiped male deity Pasupati (proto-Siva) represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture and female deity Mother Goddess represented in terracotta figurines. Phallus (Linga) worship was also prevalent.
No temples have been found from any of the Harappan sites.
Nature Worship: Trees (e.g., pipal) and animals were also worshipped by Harappans.
Writing System
Pictographic script: Written in boustrophedon style i.e., writing in right to left in one line & then left to right in next line.
However it has been not deciphered yet.
Significance of Discovery of Harappa Civilization
Provides earliest evidence of settled life in South Asia. Advanced urban planning influenced later urban development concepts. Provides earliest evidence of extensive trade networks & cultural exchanges in ancient world. Addressing Climate change Mitigation as it is believed IVC declined due to environmental changes.
Challenges Regarding Harappa Civilization
Undeciphered Writing System: Limits our understanding of the language, culture, and beliefs of the Harappa Civilization.
New Evidences for Harappa Civilization
New Archaeological excavation reveals 5,200-year-old Harappan settlement at Padta Bet in Kachchh, Gujarat.
DNA analysis of skeletons from Rakhigarhi revealed that DNA of the Harappans has continued till today and a majority of South Asian population appears to be their descendants.
Due to trade and cultural contacts of the Harappans with distant regions, there is a mixture of genes in small quantities.
Lack of Clear Hierarchies: While the Harappa Civilization had cities and residential segregation, there is no definitive evidence of a centralized political authority or a clear social hierarchy.
Role of Women: While there are some depictions of women in art and seals, their exact status and rights remain unclear.
Decline of Harappa Civilization: Many factors such as decline in soil fertility, earthquake, climate change, and invasion by Aryan etc. are attributed decline of Harappa civilization however exact reason is unknown.
Challenges About Excavation
Limited Excavation: Political and geographic factors, such as the India-Pakistan border and local development, have hindered more extensive archaeological work.
Recovering and Classifying Artifacts: Valuable artefacts that are found intact were either lost in the past or hoarded and never retrieved.
Destruction of sites: The sites of the Indus Valley Civilization were buried for thousands of years, and many have been subject to damage due to flooding, erosion, or modern development.
Conclusion
The Harappa Civilization, one of the earliest and most advanced urban societies of the ancient world declined by 1300 BCE. However, it left its mark in urban planning, craftsmanship, and metallurgy etc. Despite the mysteries surrounding its undeciphered script and sudden decline, the Harappans contributed significantly to the cultural and historical foundation of South Asia.
Major Cities/Sites & Findings
Site/city Location Discovered/Excavated by Major Findings
Harappa Pakistan Daya Ram Sahni in 1921
Red sandstone Male torso, Stone symbols of Lingam, Granaries, Mother Goddess etc.
Mohenjo-Daro Pakistan R D Banerjee in 1922
Town Planning, Citadels, Drainage system, Great Bath
Ganweriwala Cholistan area of Pakistan Rafique Mughal in 1973
Terracotta unicorn figurines, Twisted clay tablet with Indus script etc.
Rakhigarhi
Haryana in India First discovered in the 1960s by Archeological Survey of India.
Granary, cemetery, drains, terracotta bricks.
Dholavira Rann of Kachchh (Gujarat) Jagat Pati Joshi in 1968
Unique water harnessing system and its storm water drainage system, only site divided in 3 parts, Megalithic stone circle.
Lothal Gujrat S Rao in 1955
Dockyard, fire altars
Key Features
Town planning and
Architecture
Town Planning
Grid Pattern: Towns were in a rectangular grid pattern with roads at right angles.
Use of Burnt Bricks: Used burnt mud bricks joined with gypsum mortar (In contemporary Egypt dried bricks were used).
Underground drainage system connecting all houses to the street drains.
Architecture
Included large citadels, granaries, the famous Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro, and multi-story buildings that showcased their architectural prowess.
Agriculture
Agriculture: Fields were ploughed using a wooden ploughshare.
Main crops: Wheat, Rice, millets, barley, lentil, chickpea and sesame etc. They were earliest to produce cotton in the world (Greeks called it Sindon).
Domestication of Animals: Oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs, dogs, cats, asses, humped bulls camels were domesticated.
Elephants & Rhinoceros were well known to them.
Craft
They were skilled in spinning, boat-making, seal making, terracotta manufacturing (potter's wheel), goldsmiths, bead making.
The variety of materials used to make beads is remarkable: stones like carnelian (of a beautiful red colour), jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite; metals like copper, bronze and gold; and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay.
Seals made mostly from Steatite primarily used for commercial purposes, as amulets, as form of identification, for educational purposes as well.
Iron was not known to the people.
Arts
Bronze Casting: Harappa used 'lost wax' technique or Cire Perdue for bronze casting. E.g., 'Dancing Girl' standing in a 'tribhanga' dancing posture.
Stone Statues: Bearded man (made of Steatite) found in Mohenjo-daro interpreted as a priest. Red sandstone figure of a male torso (found in Harappa).
Terracotta Figures: E.g., Mother Goddess, mask of horned deity, toys, etc
Trade and Commerce
Internal and foreign trade: The use of standardized weights and measures facilitated trade and commerce.
Foreign trade was mainly conducted with Mesopotamia, Afghanistan and Iran.
Mesopotamian records called Indus region as Meluha and mentions two intermediate trading stations i.e., Dilmun (Bahrain) & Makan (Makran coast).
They exported grain, jewellery and pottery and imported thin copper and precious stones.
Religion & Culture
Deities: They worshiped male deity Pasupati (proto-Siva) represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture and female deity Mother Goddess represented in terracotta figurines. Phallus (Linga) worship was also prevalent.
No temples have been found from any of the Harappan sites.
Nature Worship: Trees (e.g., pipal) and animals were also worshipped by Harappans.
Writing System
Pictographic script: Written in boustrophedon style i.e., writing in right to left in one line & then left to right in next line.
However it has been not deciphered yet.
Significance of Discovery of Harappa Civilization
Provides earliest evidence of settled life in South Asia. Advanced urban planning influenced later urban development concepts. Provides earliest evidence of extensive trade networks & cultural exchanges in ancient world. Addressing Climate change Mitigation as it is believed IVC declined due to environmental changes.
Challenges Regarding Harappa Civilization
Undeciphered Writing System: Limits our understanding of the language, culture, and beliefs of the Harappa Civilization.
New Evidences for Harappa Civilization
New Archaeological excavation reveals 5,200-year-old Harappan settlement at Padta Bet in Kachchh, Gujarat.
DNA analysis of skeletons from Rakhigarhi revealed that DNA of the Harappans has continued till today and a majority of South Asian population appears to be their descendants.
Due to trade and cultural contacts of the Harappans with distant regions, there is a mixture of genes in small quantities.
Lack of Clear Hierarchies: While the Harappa Civilization had cities and residential segregation, there is no definitive evidence of a centralized political authority or a clear social hierarchy.
Role of Women: While there are some depictions of women in art and seals, their exact status and rights remain unclear.
Decline of Harappa Civilization: Many factors such as decline in soil fertility, earthquake, climate change, and invasion by Aryan etc. are attributed decline of Harappa civilization however exact reason is unknown.
Challenges About Excavation
Limited Excavation: Political and geographic factors, such as the India-Pakistan border and local development, have hindered more extensive archaeological work.
Recovering and Classifying Artifacts: Valuable artefacts that are found intact were either lost in the past or hoarded and never retrieved.
Destruction of sites: The sites of the Indus Valley Civilization were buried for thousands of years, and many have been subject to damage due to flooding, erosion, or modern development.
Conclusion
The Harappa Civilization, one of the earliest and most advanced urban societies of the ancient world declined by 1300 BCE. However, it left its mark in urban planning, craftsmanship, and metallurgy etc. Despite the mysteries surrounding its undeciphered script and sudden decline, the Harappans contributed significantly to the cultural and historical foundation of South Asia.
Major Cities/Sites & Findings
Site/city Location Discovered/Excavated by Major Findings
Harappa Pakistan Daya Ram Sahni in 1921
Red sandstone Male torso, Stone symbols of Lingam, Granaries, Mother Goddess etc.
Mohenjo-Daro Pakistan R D Banerjee in 1922
Town Planning, Citadels, Drainage system, Great Bath
Ganweriwala Cholistan area of Pakistan Rafique Mughal in 1973
Terracotta unicorn figurines, Twisted clay tablet with Indus script etc.
Rakhigarhi
Haryana in India First discovered in the 1960s by Archeological Survey of India.
Granary, cemetery, drains, terracotta bricks.
Dholavira Rann of Kachchh (Gujarat) Jagat Pati Joshi in 1968
Unique water harnessing system and its storm water drainage system, only site divided in 3 parts, Megalithic stone circle.
Lothal Gujrat S Rao in 1955
Dockyard, fire altars
Key Features
Town planning and
Architecture
Town Planning
Grid Pattern: Towns were in a rectangular grid pattern with roads at right angles.
Use of Burnt Bricks: Used burnt mud bricks joined with gypsum mortar (In contemporary Egypt dried bricks were used).
Underground drainage system connecting all houses to the street drains.
Architecture
Included large citadels, granaries, the famous Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro, and multi-story buildings that showcased their architectural prowess.
Agriculture
Agriculture: Fields were ploughed using a wooden ploughshare.
Main crops: Wheat, Rice, millets, barley, lentil, chickpea and sesame etc. They were earliest to produce cotton in the world (Greeks called it Sindon).
Domestication of Animals: Oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs, dogs, cats, asses, humped bulls camels were domesticated.
Elephants & Rhinoceros were well known to them.
Craft
They were skilled in spinning, boat-making, seal making, terracotta manufacturing (potter's wheel), goldsmiths, bead making.
The variety of materials used to make beads is remarkable: stones like carnelian (of a beautiful red colour), jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite; metals like copper, bronze and gold; and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay.
Seals made mostly from Steatite primarily used for commercial purposes, as amulets, as form of identification, for educational purposes as well.
Iron was not known to the people.
Arts
Bronze Casting: Harappa used 'lost wax' technique or Cire Perdue for bronze casting. E.g., 'Dancing Girl' standing in a 'tribhanga' dancing posture.
Stone Statues: Bearded man (made of Steatite) found in Mohenjo-daro interpreted as a priest. Red sandstone figure of a male torso (found in Harappa).
Terracotta Figures: E.g., Mother Goddess, mask of horned deity, toys, etc
Trade and Commerce
Internal and foreign trade: The use of standardized weights and measures facilitated trade and commerce.
Foreign trade was mainly conducted with Mesopotamia, Afghanistan and Iran.
Mesopotamian records called Indus region as Meluha and mentions two intermediate trading stations i.e., Dilmun (Bahrain) & Makan (Makran coast).
They exported grain, jewellery and pottery and imported thin copper and precious stones.
Religion & Culture
Deities: They worshiped male deity Pasupati (proto-Siva) represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture and female deity Mother Goddess represented in terracotta figurines. Phallus (Linga) worship was also prevalent.
No temples have been found from any of the Harappan sites.
Nature Worship: Trees (e.g., pipal) and animals were also worshipped by Harappans.
Writing System
Pictographic script: Written in boustrophedon style i.e., writing in right to left in one line & then left to right in next line.
However it has been not deciphered yet.
Significance of Discovery of Harappa Civilization
Provides earliest evidence of settled life in South Asia. Advanced urban planning influenced later urban development concepts. Provides earliest evidence of extensive trade networks & cultural exchanges in ancient world. Addressing Climate change Mitigation as it is believed IVC declined due to environmental changes.
Challenges Regarding Harappa Civilization
Undeciphered Writing System: Limits our understanding of the language, culture, and beliefs of the Harappa Civilization.
New Evidences for Harappa Civilization
New Archaeological excavation reveals 5,200-year-old Harappan settlement at Padta Bet in Kachchh, Gujarat.
DNA analysis of skeletons from Rakhigarhi revealed that DNA of the Harappans has continued till today and a majority of South Asian population appears to be their descendants.
Due to trade and cultural contacts of the Harappans with distant regions, there is a mixture of genes in small quantities.
Lack of Clear Hierarchies: While the Harappa Civilization had cities and residential segregation, there is no definitive evidence of a centralized political authority or a clear social hierarchy.
Role of Women: While there are some depictions of women in art and seals, their exact status and rights remain unclear.
Decline of Harappa Civilization: Many factors such as decline in soil fertility, earthquake, climate change, and invasion by Aryan etc. are attributed decline of Harappa civilization however exact reason is unknown.
Challenges About Excavation
Limited Excavation: Political and geographic factors, such as the India-Pakistan border and local development, have hindered more extensive archaeological work.
Recovering and Classifying Artifacts: Valuable artefacts that are found intact were either lost in the past or hoarded and never retrieved.
Destruction of sites: The sites of the Indus Valley Civilization were buried for thousands of years, and many have been subject to damage due to flooding, erosion, or modern development.
Conclusion
The Harappa Civilization, one of the earliest and most advanced urban societies of the ancient world declined by 1300 BCE. However, it left its mark in urban planning, craftsmanship, and metallurgy etc. Despite the mysteries surrounding its undeciphered script and sudden decline, the Harappans contributed significantly to the cultural and historical foundation of South Asia.
Major Cities/Sites & Findings
Site/city Location Discovered/Excavated by Major Findings
Harappa Pakistan Daya Ram Sahni in 1921
Red sandstone Male torso, Stone symbols of Lingam, Granaries, Mother Goddess etc.
Mohenjo-Daro Pakistan R D Banerjee in 1922
Town Planning, Citadels, Drainage system, Great Bath
Ganweriwala Cholistan area of Pakistan Rafique Mughal in 1973
Terracotta unicorn figurines, Twisted clay tablet with Indus script etc.
Rakhigarhi
Haryana in India First discovered in the 1960s by Archeological Survey of India.
Granary, cemetery, drains, terracotta bricks.
Dholavira Rann of Kachchh (Gujarat) Jagat Pati Joshi in 1968
Unique water harnessing system and its storm water drainage system, only site divided in 3 parts, Megalithic stone circle.
Lothal Gujrat S Rao in 1955
Dockyard, fire altars
Key Features
Town planning and
Architecture
Town Planning
Grid Pattern: Towns were in a rectangular grid pattern with roads at right angles.
Use of Burnt Bricks: Used burnt mud bricks joined with gypsum mortar (In contemporary Egypt dried bricks were used).
Underground drainage system connecting all houses to the street drains.
Architecture
Included large citadels, granaries, the famous Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro, and multi-story buildings that showcased their architectural prowess.
Agriculture
Agriculture: Fields were ploughed using a wooden ploughshare.
Main crops: Wheat, Rice, millets, barley, lentil, chickpea and sesame etc. They were earliest to produce cotton in the world (Greeks called it Sindon).
Domestication of Animals: Oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs, dogs, cats, asses, humped bulls camels were domesticated.
Elephants & Rhinoceros were well known to them.
Craft
They were skilled in spinning, boat-making, seal making, terracotta manufacturing (potter's wheel), goldsmiths, bead making.
The variety of materials used to make beads is remarkable: stones like carnelian (of a beautiful red colour), jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite; metals like copper, bronze and gold; and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay.
Seals made mostly from Steatite primarily used for commercial purposes, as amulets, as form of identification, for educational purposes as well.
Iron was not known to the people.
Arts
Bronze Casting: Harappa used 'lost wax' technique or Cire Perdue for bronze casting. E.g., 'Dancing Girl' standing in a 'tribhanga' dancing posture.
Stone Statues: Bearded man (made of Steatite) found in Mohenjo-daro interpreted as a priest. Red sandstone figure of a male torso (found in Harappa).
Terracotta Figures: E.g., Mother Goddess, mask of horned deity, toys, etc
Trade and Commerce
Internal and foreign trade: The use of standardized weights and measures facilitated trade and commerce.
Foreign trade was mainly conducted with Mesopotamia, Afghanistan and Iran.
Mesopotamian records called Indus region as Meluha and mentions two intermediate trading stations i.e., Dilmun (Bahrain) & Makan (Makran coast).
They exported grain, jewellery and pottery and imported thin copper and precious stones.
Religion & Culture
Deities: They worshiped male deity Pasupati (proto-Siva) represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture and female deity Mother Goddess represented in terracotta figurines. Phallus (Linga) worship was also prevalent.
No temples have been found from any of the Harappan sites.
Nature Worship: Trees (e.g., pipal) and animals were also worshipped by Harappans.
Writing System
Pictographic script: Written in boustrophedon style i.e., writing in right to left in one line & then left to right in next line.
However it has been not deciphered yet.
Significance of Discovery of Harappa Civilization
Provides earliest evidence of settled life in South Asia. Advanced urban planning influenced later urban development concepts. Provides earliest evidence of extensive trade networks & cultural exchanges in ancient world. Addressing Climate change Mitigation as it is believed IVC declined due to environmental changes.
Challenges Regarding Harappa Civilization
Undeciphered Writing System: Limits our understanding of the language, culture, and beliefs of the Harappa Civilization.
New Evidences for Harappa Civilization
New Archaeological excavation reveals 5,200-year-old Harappan settlement at Padta Bet in Kachchh, Gujarat.
DNA analysis of skeletons from Rakhigarhi revealed that DNA of the Harappans has continued till today and a majority of South Asian population appears to be their descendants.
Due to trade and cultural contacts of the Harappans with distant regions, there is a mixture of genes in small quantities.
Lack of Clear Hierarchies: While the Harappa Civilization had cities and residential segregation, there is no definitive evidence of a centralized political authority or a clear social hierarchy.
Role of Women: While there are some depictions of women in art and seals, their exact status and rights remain unclear.
Decline of Harappa Civilization: Many factors such as decline in soil fertility, earthquake, climate change, and invasion by Aryan etc. are attributed decline of Harappa civilization however exact reason is unknown.
Challenges About Excavation
Limited Excavation: Political and geographic factors, such as the India-Pakistan border and local development, have hindered more extensive archaeological work.
Recovering and Classifying Artifacts: Valuable artefacts that are found intact were either lost in the past or hoarded and never retrieved.
Destruction of sites: The sites of the Indus Valley Civilization were buried for thousands of years, and many have been subject to damage due to flooding, erosion, or modern development.
Conclusion
The Harappa Civilization, one of the earliest and most advanced urban societies of the ancient world declined by 1300 BCE. However, it left its mark in urban planning, craftsmanship, and metallurgy etc. Despite the mysteries surrounding its undeciphered script and sudden decline, the Harappans contributed significantly to the cultural and historical foundation of South Asia.
Major Cities/Sites & Findings
Site/city Location Discovered/Excavated by Major Findings
Harappa Pakistan Daya Ram Sahni in 1921
Red sandstone Male torso, Stone symbols of Lingam, Granaries, Mother Goddess etc.
Mohenjo-Daro Pakistan R D Banerjee in 1922
Town Planning, Citadels, Drainage system, Great Bath
Ganweriwala Cholistan area of Pakistan Rafique Mughal in 1973
Terracotta unicorn figurines, Twisted clay tablet with Indus script etc.
Rakhigarhi
Haryana in India First discovered in the 1960s by Archeological Survey of India.
Granary, cemetery, drains, terracotta bricks.
Dholavira Rann of Kachchh (Gujarat) Jagat Pati Joshi in 1968
Unique water harnessing system and its storm water drainage system, only site divided in 3 parts, Megalithic stone circle.
Lothal Gujrat S Rao in 1955
Dockyard, fire altars
Key Features
Town planning and
Architecture
Town Planning
Grid Pattern: Towns were in a rectangular grid pattern with roads at right angles.
Use of Burnt Bricks: Used burnt mud bricks joined with gypsum mortar (In contemporary Egypt dried bricks were used).
Underground drainage system connecting all houses to the street drains.
Architecture
Included large citadels, granaries, the famous Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro, and multi-story buildings that showcased their architectural prowess.
Agriculture
Agriculture: Fields were ploughed using a wooden ploughshare.
Main crops: Wheat, Rice, millets, barley, lentil, chickpea and sesame etc. They were earliest to produce cotton in the world (Greeks called it Sindon).
Domestication of Animals: Oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs, dogs, cats, asses, humped bulls camels were domesticated.
Elephants & Rhinoceros were well known to them.
Craft
They were skilled in spinning, boat-making, seal making, terracotta manufacturing (potter's wheel), goldsmiths, bead making.
The variety of materials used to make beads is remarkable: stones like carnelian (of a beautiful red colour), jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite; metals like copper, bronze and gold; and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay.
Seals made mostly from Steatite primarily used for commercial purposes, as amulets, as form of identification, for educational purposes as well.
Iron was not known to the people.
Arts
Bronze Casting: Harappa used 'lost wax' technique or Cire Perdue for bronze casting. E.g., 'Dancing Girl' standing in a 'tribhanga' dancing posture.
Stone Statues: Bearded man (made of Steatite) found in Mohenjo-daro interpreted as a priest. Red sandstone figure of a male torso (found in Harappa).
Terracotta Figures: E.g., Mother Goddess, mask of horned deity, toys, etc
Trade and Commerce
Internal and foreign trade: The use of standardized weights and measures facilitated trade and commerce.
Foreign trade was mainly conducted with Mesopotamia, Afghanistan and Iran.
Mesopotamian records called Indus region as Meluha and mentions two intermediate trading stations i.e., Dilmun (Bahrain) & Makan (Makran coast).
They exported grain, jewellery and pottery and imported thin copper and precious stones.
Religion & Culture
Deities: They worshiped male deity Pasupati (proto-Siva) represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture and female deity Mother Goddess represented in terracotta figurines. Phallus (Linga) worship was also prevalent.
No temples have been found from any of the Harappan sites.
Nature Worship: Trees (e.g., pipal) and animals were also worshipped by Harappans.
Writing System
Pictographic script: Written in boustrophedon style i.e., writing in right to left in one line & then left to right in next line.
However it has been not deciphered yet.
Significance of Discovery of Harappa Civilization
Provides earliest evidence of settled life in South Asia. Advanced urban planning influenced later urban development concepts. Provides earliest evidence of extensive trade networks & cultural exchanges in ancient world. Addressing Climate change Mitigation as it is believed IVC declined due to environmental changes.
Challenges Regarding Harappa Civilization
Undeciphered Writing System: Limits our understanding of the language, culture, and beliefs of the Harappa Civilization.
New Evidences for Harappa Civilization
New Archaeological excavation reveals 5,200-year-old Harappan settlement at Padta Bet in Kachchh, Gujarat.
DNA analysis of skeletons from Rakhigarhi revealed that DNA of the Harappans has continued till today and a majority of South Asian population appears to be their descendants.
Due to trade and cultural contacts of the Harappans with distant regions, there is a mixture of genes in small quantities.
Lack of Clear Hierarchies: While the Harappa Civilization had cities and residential segregation, there is no definitive evidence of a centralized political authority or a clear social hierarchy.
Role of Women: While there are some depictions of women in art and seals, their exact status and rights remain unclear.
Decline of Harappa Civilization: Many factors such as decline in soil fertility, earthquake, climate change, and invasion by Aryan etc. are attributed decline of Harappa civilization however exact reason is unknown.
Challenges About Excavation
Limited Excavation: Political and geographic factors, such as the India-Pakistan border and local development, have hindered more extensive archaeological work.
Recovering and Classifying Artifacts: Valuable artefacts that are found intact were either lost in the past or hoarded and never retrieved.
Destruction of sites: The sites of the Indus Valley Civilization were buried for thousands of years, and many have been subject to damage due to flooding, erosion, or modern development.
Conclusion
The Harappa Civilization, one of the earliest and most advanced urban societies of the ancient world declined by 1300 BCE. However, it left its mark in urban planning, craftsmanship, and metallurgy etc. Despite the mysteries surrounding its undeciphered script and sudden decline, the Harappans contributed significantly to the cultural and historical foundation of South Asia.
Major Cities/Sites & Findings
Site/city Location Discovered/Excavated by Major Findings
Harappa Pakistan Daya Ram Sahni in 1921
Red sandstone Male torso, Stone symbols of Lingam, Granaries, Mother Goddess etc.
Mohenjo-Daro Pakistan R D Banerjee in 1922
Town Planning, Citadels, Drainage system, Great Bath
Ganweriwala Cholistan area of Pakistan Rafique Mughal in 1973
Terracotta unicorn figurines, Twisted clay tablet with Indus script etc.
Rakhigarhi
Haryana in India First discovered in the 1960s by Archeological Survey of India.
Granary, cemetery, drains, terracotta bricks.
Dholavira Rann of Kachchh (Gujarat) Jagat Pati Joshi in 1968
Unique water harnessing system and its storm water drainage system, only site divided in 3 parts, Megalithic stone circle.
Lothal Gujrat S Rao in 1955
Dockyard, fire altars
Key Features
Town planning and
Architecture
Town Planning
Grid Pattern: Towns were in a rectangular grid pattern with roads at right angles.
Use of Burnt Bricks: Used burnt mud bricks joined with gypsum mortar (In contemporary Egypt dried bricks were used).
Underground drainage system connecting all houses to the street drains.
Architecture
Included large citadels, granaries, the famous Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro, and multi-story buildings that showcased their architectural prowess.
Agriculture
Agriculture: Fields were ploughed using a wooden ploughshare.
Main crops: Wheat, Rice, millets, barley, lentil, chickpea and sesame etc. They were earliest to produce cotton in the world (Greeks called it Sindon).
Domestication of Animals: Oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs, dogs, cats, asses, humped bulls camels were domesticated.
Elephants & Rhinoceros were well known to them.
Craft
They were skilled in spinning, boat-making, seal making, terracotta manufacturing (potter's wheel), goldsmiths, bead making.
The variety of materials used to make beads is remarkable: stones like carnelian (of a beautiful red colour), jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite; metals like copper, bronze and gold; and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay.
Seals made mostly from Steatite primarily used for commercial purposes, as amulets, as form of identification, for educational purposes as well.
Iron was not known to the people.
Arts
Bronze Casting: Harappa used 'lost wax' technique or Cire Perdue for bronze casting. E.g., 'Dancing Girl' standing in a 'tribhanga' dancing posture.
Stone Statues: Bearded man (made of Steatite) found in Mohenjo-daro interpreted as a priest. Red sandstone figure of a male torso (found in Harappa).
Terracotta Figures: E.g., Mother Goddess, mask of horned deity, toys, etc
Trade and Commerce
Internal and foreign trade: The use of standardized weights and measures facilitated trade and commerce.
Foreign trade was mainly conducted with Mesopotamia, Afghanistan and Iran.
Mesopotamian records called Indus region as Meluha and mentions two intermediate trading stations i.e., Dilmun (Bahrain) & Makan (Makran coast).
They exported grain, jewellery and pottery and imported thin copper and precious stones.
Religion & Culture
Deities: They worshiped male deity Pasupati (proto-Siva) represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture and female deity Mother Goddess represented in terracotta figurines. Phallus (Linga) worship was also prevalent.
No temples have been found from any of the Harappan sites.
Nature Worship: Trees (e.g., pipal) and animals were also worshipped by Harappans.
Writing System
Pictographic script: Written in boustrophedon style i.e., writing in right to left in one line & then left to right in next line.
However it has been not deciphered yet.
Significance of Discovery of Harappa Civilization
Provides earliest evidence of settled life in South Asia. Advanced urban planning influenced later urban development concepts. Provides earliest evidence of extensive trade networks & cultural exchanges in ancient world. Addressing Climate change Mitigation as it is believed IVC declined due to environmental changes.
Challenges Regarding Harappa Civilization
Undeciphered Writing System: Limits our understanding of the language, culture, and beliefs of the Harappa Civilization.
New Evidences for Harappa Civilization
New Archaeological excavation reveals 5,200-year-old Harappan settlement at Padta Bet in Kachchh, Gujarat.
DNA analysis of skeletons from Rakhigarhi revealed that DNA of the Harappans has continued till today and a majority of South Asian population appears to be their descendants.
Due to trade and cultural contacts of the Harappans with distant regions, there is a mixture of genes in small quantities.
Lack of Clear Hierarchies: While the Harappa Civilization had cities and residential segregation, there is no definitive evidence of a centralized political authority or a clear social hierarchy.
Role of Women: While there are some depictions of women in art and seals, their exact status and rights remain unclear.
Decline of Harappa Civilization: Many factors such as decline in soil fertility, earthquake, climate change, and invasion by Aryan etc. are attributed decline of Harappa civilization however exact reason is unknown.
Challenges About Excavation
Limited Excavation: Political and geographic factors, such as the India-Pakistan border and local development, have hindered more extensive archaeological work.
Recovering and Classifying Artifacts: Valuable artefacts that are found intact were either lost in the past or hoarded and never retrieved.
Destruction of sites: The sites of the Indus Valley Civilization were buried for thousands of years, and many have been subject to damage due to flooding, erosion, or modern development.
Conclusion
The Harappa Civilization, one of the earliest and most advanced urban societies of the ancient world declined by 1300 BCE. However, it left its mark in urban planning, craftsmanship, and metallurgy etc. Despite the mysteries surrounding its undeciphered script and sudden decline, the Harappans contributed significantly to the cultural and historical foundation of South Asia.
Major Cities/Sites & Findings
Site/city Location Discovered/Excavated by Major Findings
Harappa Pakistan Daya Ram Sahni in 1921
Red sandstone Male torso, Stone symbols of Lingam, Granaries, Mother Goddess etc.
Mohenjo-Daro Pakistan R D Banerjee in 1922
Town Planning, Citadels, Drainage system, Great Bath
Ganweriwala Cholistan area of Pakistan Rafique Mughal in 1973
Terracotta unicorn figurines, Twisted clay tablet with Indus script etc.
Rakhigarhi
Haryana in India First discovered in the 1960s by Archeological Survey of India.
Granary, cemetery, drains, terracotta bricks.
Dholavira Rann of Kachchh (Gujarat) Jagat Pati Joshi in 1968
Unique water harnessing system and its storm water drainage system, only site divided in 3 parts, Megalithic stone circle.
Lothal Gujrat S Rao in 1955
Dockyard, fire altars
Key Features
Town planning and
Architecture
Town Planning
Grid Pattern: Towns were in a rectangular grid pattern with roads at right angles.
Use of Burnt Bricks: Used burnt mud bricks joined with gypsum mortar (In contemporary Egypt dried bricks were used).
Underground drainage system connecting all houses to the street drains.
Architecture
Included large citadels, granaries, the famous Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro, and multi-story buildings that showcased their architectural prowess.
Agriculture
Agriculture: Fields were ploughed using a wooden ploughshare.
Main crops: Wheat, Rice, millets, barley, lentil, chickpea and sesame etc. They were earliest to produce cotton in the world (Greeks called it Sindon).
Domestication of Animals: Oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs, dogs, cats, asses, humped bulls camels were domesticated.
Elephants & Rhinoceros were well known to them.
Craft
They were skilled in spinning, boat-making, seal making, terracotta manufacturing (potter's wheel), goldsmiths, bead making.
The variety of materials used to make beads is remarkable: stones like carnelian (of a beautiful red colour), jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite; metals like copper, bronze and gold; and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay.
Seals made mostly from Steatite primarily used for commercial purposes, as amulets, as form of identification, for educational purposes as well.
Iron was not known to the people.
Arts
Bronze Casting: Harappa used 'lost wax' technique or Cire Perdue for bronze casting. E.g., 'Dancing Girl' standing in a 'tribhanga' dancing posture.
Stone Statues: Bearded man (made of Steatite) found in Mohenjo-daro interpreted as a priest. Red sandstone figure of a male torso (found in Harappa).
Terracotta Figures: E.g., Mother Goddess, mask of horned deity, toys, etc
Trade and Commerce
Internal and foreign trade: The use of standardized weights and measures facilitated trade and commerce.
Foreign trade was mainly conducted with Mesopotamia, Afghanistan and Iran.
Mesopotamian records called Indus region as Meluha and mentions two intermediate trading stations i.e., Dilmun (Bahrain) & Makan (Makran coast).
They exported grain, jewellery and pottery and imported thin copper and precious stones.
Religion & Culture
Deities: They worshiped male deity Pasupati (proto-Siva) represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture and female deity Mother Goddess represented in terracotta figurines. Phallus (Linga) worship was also prevalent.
No temples have been found from any of the Harappan sites.
Nature Worship: Trees (e.g., pipal) and animals were also worshipped by Harappans.
Writing System
Pictographic script: Written in boustrophedon style i.e., writing in right to left in one line & then left to right in next line.
However it has been not deciphered yet.
Significance of Discovery of Harappa Civilization
Provides earliest evidence of settled life in South Asia. Advanced urban planning influenced later urban development concepts. Provides earliest evidence of extensive trade networks & cultural exchanges in ancient world. Addressing Climate change Mitigation as it is believed IVC declined due to environmental changes.
Challenges Regarding Harappa Civilization
Undeciphered Writing System: Limits our understanding of the language, culture, and beliefs of the Harappa Civilization.
New Evidences for Harappa Civilization
New Archaeological excavation reveals 5,200-year-old Harappan settlement at Padta Bet in Kachchh, Gujarat.
DNA analysis of skeletons from Rakhigarhi revealed that DNA of the Harappans has continued till today and a majority of South Asian population appears to be their descendants.
Due to trade and cultural contacts of the Harappans with distant regions, there is a mixture of genes in small quantities.
Lack of Clear Hierarchies: While the Harappa Civilization had cities and residential segregation, there is no definitive evidence of a centralized political authority or a clear social hierarchy.
Role of Women: While there are some depictions of women in art and seals, their exact status and rights remain unclear.
Decline of Harappa Civilization: Many factors such as decline in soil fertility, earthquake, climate change, and invasion by Aryan etc. are attributed decline of Harappa civilization however exact reason is unknown.
Challenges About Excavation
Limited Excavation: Political and geographic factors, such as the India-Pakistan border and local development, have hindered more extensive archaeological work.
Recovering and Classifying Artifacts: Valuable artefacts that are found intact were either lost in the past or hoarded and never retrieved.
Destruction of sites: The sites of the Indus Valley Civilization were buried for thousands of years, and many have been subject to damage due to flooding, erosion, or modern development.
Conclusion
The Harappa Civilization, one of the earliest and most advanced urban societies of the ancient world declined by 1300 BCE. However, it left its mark in urban planning, craftsmanship, and metallurgy etc. Despite the mysteries surrounding its undeciphered script and sudden decline, the Harappans contributed significantly to the cultural and historical foundation of South Asia.
Major Cities/Sites & Findings
Site/city Location Discovered/Excavated by Major Findings
Harappa Pakistan Daya Ram Sahni in 1921
Red sandstone Male torso, Stone symbols of Lingam, Granaries, Mother Goddess etc.
Mohenjo-Daro Pakistan R D Banerjee in 1922
Town Planning, Citadels, Drainage system, Great Bath
Ganweriwala Cholistan area of Pakistan Rafique Mughal in 1973
Terracotta unicorn figurines, Twisted clay tablet with Indus script etc.
Rakhigarhi
Haryana in India First discovered in the 1960s by Archeological Survey of India.
Granary, cemetery, drains, terracotta bricks.
Dholavira Rann of Kachchh (Gujarat) Jagat Pati Joshi in 1968
Unique water harnessing system and its storm water drainage system, only site divided in 3 parts, Megalithic stone circle.
Lothal Gujrat S Rao in 1955
Dockyard, fire altars