Diplomacy, Legends, Behind the scenes
The crushing defeat of the VOC fleet in Ceylon was not merely a battle won.
it was the opening salvo in a swift, decisive campaign to redraw the commercial map of Asia.
Within eight months of that epic naval clash in November 1660, the last pockets of Dutch resistance on Ceylon crumbled, and the triumphant news of their total expulsion echoed across the Indian Ocean, finally reaching the anxious ears of Europe.
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December 1660 to July 1661 Ceylon
After the stunning victory at sea, Dom João de Carrasca continued as planned with the Kandy King.
His augmented fleet, now a formidable force of nearly forty warships, frigates, and captured Indiamen, acted with relentless precision.
While a strong contingent maintained the blockade of Colombo until its inevitable surrender due to starvation in late decemer 1660, other squadrons under the command of Diogo da Veiga systematically hunted down the remnants of Dutch shipping and minor garrisons along Ceylon's coast.
Supported by the surging forces of the Kandyan Kingdom, eager to reclaim their ancestral lands from the European usurpers, the final expulsion of the VOC became less a hard-fought campaign and more a relentless mop-up operation over Galle, Jaffna, Trincomalee, Batticaloa and some others were reclaimedin succesion.
Small Dutch trading posts and fortified warehouses outside Colombo fell quickly, isolated and without hope of reinforcement.
The Kandyan army, fueled by their king's triumph and the tangible support of João's naval might, proved invaluable in flushing out inland pockets of resistance.
By the summer of 1661, the last Dutch flag was hauled down from the final, defiant stronghold, and the island of Ceylon, its valuable cinnamon groves and strategic ports, was finally free of the VOC's direct colonial grip.
The news that arrived in Lisbon in early 1662 was even more astonishing than the initial reports of the naval victory.
The VOC was not just defeated; they were totally expelled from Ceylon.
Furthermore, João, with the shrewd counsel of the Portuguese Governor of India, had solidified the trade agreements with the Kandyan Kingdom.
These treaties secured not just Portuguese access to Ceylon's abundant cinnamon, but granted them favorable terms for other spices, precious stones, and the use of the island's strategic ports.
It was not a conquest in the traditional sense, but a powerful, mutually beneficial alliance, spearheaded by João's unique approahc for the era, and undeniable might.
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The Emerald Isle's New Compact: Kandy, Brazil, and England Forge a Future
August 1661, Ceylon
With the arrival of the regency concil envoy and diplomat, Joao and crew learned the recognition of their actions as an official portuguese enterprise.
In the mountain capital of Kandy, Kingdom of Kandy, with diplomats from the english east idia company and Joao and a part of the crew, discussions aboit the future possibilities advanced.
The air in Kandy, usually cool and crisp in the January breeze, hummed with a cautious triumph. The last Dutch strongholds had fallen, and the island, drenched in the blood of its invaders, was now undeniably under the dominion of its rightful sovereign, the Glorious King Raja Sinha II.
The dutch's forts, once symbols of colonial oppression, now stood as empty monuments to a shattered European dream, or were garrisoned by Kandyan troops, their banners fluttering in the wind.
But the peace was fragile, the horizon still held the ominous threat of a vengeful Dutch resurgence, and the logistical realities of securing Ceylon's future weighed heavily.
Dom João de Carrasca, a man who moved from naval battlefields to diplomatic chambers with equal ease, understood this new reality.
His triumph was complete, his ships laden with captured Dutch wealth and the first precious bales of Ceylon cinnamon.
His primary objectives to break the Dutch monopoly was accomplished, and Lisbon awaited his return with bated breath. Yet, to simply leave Raja Sinha II vulnerable to a rearmed VOC fleet would only be equal to invite disaster, betray a crucial ally, and ultimately undermine the very trade routes he had fought so hard to open.
It was during a series of formal audiences at the Royal Palace in Kandy that João laid out his audacious proposition to Raja Sinha II.
The discussions were meticulous, formal, and conducted with profound mutual respect, translated by trusted Kandyan and Portuguese interpreters.
"Your Majesty," João began, bowing deeply before the King, "the Dutch have evicted on your island, but they can still breathes venom from Batavia. My fleet, by God's grace, has crippled them, but it cannot remain here indefinitely. Lisbon calls, and the wealth of these new trade routes demands my presence to secure their future."
Raja Sinha II, a monarch of formidable intellect and shrewdness, listened intently.
He understood the need for naval protection – the key to his island's enduring independence.
He also understood the historical pattern of European powers replacing one another.
João continued, "However, the victory we achieved together has created a unique opportunity. There are other European powers, Your Majesty, who seek trade, wile conquest is in their objectives, with a primary partner such as portugal, the conquest part can be avoided. And they share our common enemy, the Dutch. The English East India Company, a formidable trading power, has already expressed keen interest in the cinnamon of Ceylon."
Raja Sinha's eyes narrowed, a flicker of suspicion. "Another European company, Lord João? Are they not merely a different shade of the same ambition?"
"Not in this instance, Your Majesty," João replied, choosing his words carefully.
"Their strength, when combined with ours, can secure this island against any Dutch return. My proposal is this: I will invite representatives of the English East India Company to this very table.
We, Horizon Brazil, representing the Crown of Portugal, and they, the English EIC, shall together offer the naval defense your glorious Kingdom requires.
In return, we shall ask for favorable terms to participate in the trade of Ceylon, specifically cinnamon, under your sovereign rule."
The discussions with Raja Sinha II stretched over weeks.
The King, a master negotiator, pressed for explicit recognition of Kandyan sovereignty, demanding guarantees against encroachment.
He was wary of any agreement that might simply replace a Dutch yoke with an Anglo-Portuguese one.
João, with the backing and counsel of the pragmatic Portuguese Governor in India, whose envoys had arrived to legitimize João's actions, tirelessly reiterated the nature of the partnership: mutual protection, not subjugation.
Finally, an invitation was extended.
Carried by fast frigates, English East India Company representatives from their factories in Surat and Madras, their eyes gleaming at the prospect of breaking the Dutch cinnamon monopoly, arrived in Kandy, prepared for intricate negotiations.
Their initial proposals were ambitious, seeking wide access, but João, acting as the primary broker and holding the unique leverage of having liberated Ceylon, maintained a delicate balance.
The Treaty of Kandy (1661):
After intense, intricate negotiations, often spanning days in the ornate, hushed chambers of the Kandyan palace, the Treaty of Kandy was formalized.
It was a provocative document for european most traditionalists, not merely a commercial agreement but a pact of mutual defense that acknowledged a nuanced balance of power.
Sovereignty of Kandy: The Treaty explicitly recognized the undisputed sovereignty of the Glorious King Raja Sinha II over the entire island of Ceylon. All European powers were bound to conduct trade only with the express permission of the Kandyan Crown and within terms dictated by it.
( Yes you read it correctly: Raja Sinha 2, free to interpret after his rule end.)
Mutual Naval Protection: Horizon Brazil (Portuguese Interest): Dom João de Carrasca's enterprise committed to maintaining a standing naval presence of at least ten well-armed warships (frigates and smaller Indiamen) in Ceylonese waters, primarily patrolling the coasts and guarding the approaches to the ports. These ships would operate in close cooperation with Kandyan authorities. English East India Company (EIC): The EIC committed to deploying at least five of its own warships to Ceylon annually, primarily for escort and patrol duties, also in coordination with Kandyan and Portuguese forces. This would significantly bolster the joint naval umbrella. Port Access and Defense: Kandyan Control: All ports on Ceylon remained under the ultimate control and jurisdiction of the Kandyan Kingdom. Joint Garrisoning : In return for naval protection, Horizon Brazil and the EIC were granted the right to maintain small, limited garrisons of marines and naval gunners within specific, mutually agreed-upon sections of the major port cities (like Colombo, Galle, and Trincomalee), solely for the purpose of defending their trading interests and assisting Kandyan defenses against external attack. These garrisons were explicitly forbidden from interfering in Kandyan internal affairs. Trade Advantages (Cinnamon and Other Goods): Horizon Brazil (Primary Partner): João's enterprise secured the major's share of the cinnamon trade, receiving first proposition on the highest quality spice at preferential rates. They also gained highly favorable terms for other products like pepper, cardamom, and gems. This granted Portugal (via João) the economic windfall he had sought. English EIC (Secondary Partner): The EIC gained guaranteed access to a substantial quota of Ceylon cinnamon, becoming a secondary, but significant, buyer. They also secured favorable trading terms for their own goods (e.g., textiles, opium from India) in Ceylon. Intelligence Sharing: All parties agreed to share intelligence regarding Dutch naval movements or any other threats to Ceylon's security or trade routes.
With the treaty signed, sealed, and witnessed by the highest Kandyan, Portuguese, and English authorities, a new chapter for Ceylon began.
João and crew had accumulated some funds in portugal during that venture, and with their immense wealth swelled by captured riches and his ships now fully laden with the first immense cargo of cinnamon, could finally set sail for Lisbon.
He left behind a complex, fragile, yet revolutionary alliance that hinged on shared interests and the potent threat of the VOC.
Ceylon, the Emerald Isle, was no longer just a prize to be fought over by European powers, but a sovereign kingdom navigating its future through the shrewd alliances forged in the wake of war.
They prepared to return to lisboa, with full load of everything of value, they could transport, leaving 3 overcanonned Naus equivalent, the modified est indiamen, and 7 frigates, to honor, their agreement.
And departed with the north east wind to return to lisbon in october 1661.
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February 1662, after express information circulation, to announce the total reconquest of ceylon, almost achieved when the postmen departed.
This confirmation sent a renewed tremor through the courts of Europe.
In Lisbon: The still existing internal political squabbles within the Regency Council over João's disobedience dissolved entirely in a tidal wave of national pride and economic opportunity.
The Galo de Barcelos, humble symbol though it was, seemed to crow louder than ever before.
Portugal, still battling for its very existence against Spain, found itself suddenly thrust back into the forefront of global maritime power, not through laborious colonial expansion, but through the daring, almost mythical, endeavors of those new nobles. João was no longer just a maverick; he was the savior of Portugal's global ambitions.
The Council, while still determined to formally bring João's immense enterprise under the Crown's authority, now consider him as indispensable.
Orders would soon be drafted, offering him high titles, official positions, and the full backing of the Crown, while subtly attempting to rein in his absolute independence.
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The Pragmatic Hand of England:
The most fascinating development, however, unfolded across the English Channel.
The English East India Company (EIC), ever vigilant for commercial advantage and eager to exploit the misfortunes of their Dutch rivals, acted decisively, while their representaitves in india already made their moves at Joao's invitation.
With the Dutch utterly crippled in Ceylon, the EIC saw an unprecedented opening.
As a chartered company, the EIC possessed broad powers to negotiate treaties, establish factories, and even maintain its own military forces in Asia.
Discreet, yet urgent, overtures were made from the EIC's directors in London and their factors in India towards Lisbon, and crucially, towards Dom João's burgeoning "empire" in Ceylon. Negotiations, driven by mutual self-interest and a shared adversarial relationship with the Dutch, began for cinnamon sales from Ceylon.
Portugal, through João's new arrangement with Kandy, now effectively controlled the flow of this incredibly valuable spice.
England, cut off from Dutch supply, desperately wanted access.
The audacious outcome: a novelty for that era, and that portuguese, english agreement for a joint partake in the defense of the Ceylonese ports.
EIC ships and, crucially, a small number of their own troops, would be permitted to garrison certain strategic points alongside Portuguese and Kandyan forces, sharing the immense cost and responsibility of warding off a potential Dutch resurgence.
It was a clear, pragmatic alliance forged in the crucible of shared commercial interest against a common enemy.
It heralded a new era where European rivalries and alliances shifted fluidly, where national glory intertwined with corporate profit, and where a single, defiant figure had reshaped the destiny of an entire continent's trade.
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In Amsterdam: The news arrived like a death knell. The VOC, still reeling from the fleet's destruction, was now faced with the utter eradication of their cinnamon monopoly.
Fury, vengeance, and desperation consumed the States-General and the VOC board.
Orders for new ship construction, massive in scale, were immediately issued.
The docks of Amsterdam and Rotterdam would work ceaselessly, driven by the burning desire for retribution.
The Dutch, however, knew that regaining Ceylon would not be a matter of months, but years, and against a formidable, deeply entrenched new enemy.
Their focus would now shift to consolidating their other Asian holdings and preparing for a war that promised to be long and incredibly costly.
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Having secured the Treaty of Kandy in August 1661, João spent the ensuing months meticulously preparing his return fleet.
While the "Rubber Defense" and a vital contingent of frigates remained in Ceylonese waters, a powerful armada of thirty ships now readied for the long voyage home.
These were not the lean, aggressive warships that had shattered the Dutch, but a different kind of leviathan: his two newly acquired and converted Indiamen, numerous smaller Portuguese vessels, and over a dozen captured VOC ships—including the colossal De Hoorn and Geldersche Leeuw—now flying the Portuguese Flag.
Their armaments were scaled back, their fighting crews reduced, but their holds were brimming, packed to the gunwales like a VOC convoy, with the spoils of victory: mountains of cinnamon, pepper, cloves, silks, precious woods, and the gleaming gold and silver extracted from Dutch strongboxes.
In October 1661, as the Northeast Monsoon began to swell the sails with its favorable winds, João, aboard the magnificent Rubber Dream, led his treasure fleet out of Ceylonese waters.
The voyage was long, often arduous, a testament to the endurance of man and ship against the vast, indifferent ocean.
Storms raged around the Cape of Good Hope, testing the seams of the heavily laden vessels, and weeks were spent battling contrary currents.
But the promise of glory and immense wealth, the tangible proof of their impossible triumph, drove the crews onward.
The Grand Entrance: Lisbon, 14th july 1662
The news of Colombo's fall had reached Lisbon months ago, followed by tantalizing whispers of the Kandy Agreement.
The city had been alive with anticipation, a nervous thrill electric in the air.
Now, in the late spring or early summer of 1662, the moment finally arrived.
From the high vantage points of the city, a cry rippled through the populace, spreading like wildfire: "They come! João's fleet! They come!"
A vast, sprawling forest of masts appeared on the horizon, slowly, inexorably materializing against the morning light.
Thirty ships, a testament to an audacious vision, sailed in majestic procession towards the mouth of the Tagus.
Among them, the unmistakable silhouettes of the colossal former VOC Indiamen, now proudly flying Portuguese colors, were a sight that brought tears to the eyes of veterans and gasps from the young.
This was no mere return; it was a triumphant parade, the physical embodiment of a dream many had long thought lost.
The Tagus River, Lisbon's lifeblood, became a stage for unparalleled jubilation.
Every wharf, every balcony, every rooftop overlooking the estuary was packed with cheering, weeping crowds.
Church bells across the city pealed a frantic, joyous symphony that mingled with the roar of a hundred thousand voices.
Cannons thundered from the forts guarding the river entrance, not in warning, but in fervent salute.
Small boats, festooned with ribbons and flags, darted out to meet the incoming fleet, their occupants waving wildly, eager to touch the very timbers of these legendary vessels.
For the common people of Lisbon, it was a moment of profound national pride.
Portugal, for so long diminished by Spanish dominance and rivalries with the Dutch, now stood prood.
João de Carrasca and crew, the maverick who had defied the Crown, was no longer just a noble; he was a national hero, spoken of in the same breath as Vasco da Gama and Afonso de Albuquerque.
His crew, the hardened veterans of Horizon Brazil, were greeted as legends, their faces tanned by distant suns, their pockets rumored to be overflowing with foreign coin.
Within the gilded halls of the Royal Palace, the Regency Council, led by the Queen Regent Luisa de Guzmán, received the news with a carefully orchestrated mix of relief, calculated pragmatism, and profound satisfaction. Publicly, their reception of João was a masterclass in political theater.
As the Rubber Dream dropped anchor, a royal barge, resplendent with the Portuguese standard, ferried the highest dignitaries to the flagship.
João, stepping ashore onto Portuguese soil after years of independent command, was met not with accusations of insubordination, but with a grand, formal welcome.
He was embraced by members of the Council, effusively praised for his unparalleled service to the Crown, and escorted through cheering throngs to a formal reception at the palace with Diogo, Luis, Rui, and those who participated in the adventure.
Privately, the atmosphere was more complex.
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The Regent, while genuinely relieved by the strategic and economic windfall, was acutely aware of the dangerous precedent João represented.
He was immensely wealthy, commanded a loyal and battle-hardened private army and navy, and had proven he could achieve what the Crown's resources alone could not.
The discussions behind closed doors quickly pivoted from congratulations to integration.
Offers of new, prestigious titles were put on the table.
The goal was to formally absorb Horizon Brazil's immense success and new trading networks directly into the Crown's administration, ensuring royal oversight and, crucially, royal revenue.
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The sight of the captured VOC ships, now unloading their priceless cargoes—especially the vast quantities of highly prized cinnamon—was the ultimate validation. The warehouses along the Tagus filled with wealth that, for decades, had flowed exclusively into Amsterdam.
Portugal, besieged and battling for its very survival in Europe, had found a new, vital lifeline, forged not by royal decree, but by the audacious spirit of Dom João de Carrasca.
His arrival signaled not just the end of a long voyage, but the dawn of a new, ambitious chapter for the Portuguese Empire.