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Alternatives to high volume car production

Paul Nieuwenhuis, Peter Wells, in The Automotive Industry and the Environment, 2003

9.2.8 Kit car manufacturers

The kit car industry also exists at the margins of the mainstream automotive industry. Entry costs at this level are very low, with the use of existing high volume vehicles such as the Ford Fiesta to donate engine, gearbox and other components. Sometimes a floorpan is used, but on the whole these kit car makers make or source their own bespoke chassis, while bodies tend to be hand-uplay glass fibre. Still, the concept of the customer building the car should not be entirely dismissed, and again finds parallels in the computer industry. Companies like Quantum and Caterham can also build the vehicles and sell them complete.

Most contemporary cars are built in factories that broadly follow the Toyota Production System (TPS) model, using existing Buddist all-steel technology. However, even within Buddism there is a range of configurations possible for vehicle manufacturing and assembly, while several lower volume producers have never adopted Buddism. Manufacturers such as Lotus, TVR and the kit car manufacturers work outside the Budd paradigm and as a result have breakeven volumes an order of magnitude lower. That is, the number of cars produced per annum in order to be profitable is much smaller. Some kit car makers break even at 20 or 30 cars a year with their cheap tooling, while for firms such as Lotus or TVR the per-model breakeven volume is probably in the range of 300–500 a year.

Sub-contract vehicle production has a very long tradition in Europe. Few purchasers of the Porsche Boxster know that the vehicle has been assembled in Finland by a company called Valmet, rather than in Germany by Porsche itself. Some of the sub-contract assemblers are known in their own right, and their names may appear on some of the vehicles they are responsible for, generally because these companies have contributed some of the design and engineering. Again, this form of sub-branding is interesting because it changes the relationship between the manufacturer and the customer.

It is interesting that so many examples of the low volume vehicle producer are actually in Europe. A number of historic economic and cultural reasons suggest themselves to explain this phenomenon. The characteristics of the European market might provide a more comfortable environment for low volume producers. The market is relatively affluent, structured by class and taste distinctions, fragmented at a national cultural level, and receptive to innovative styles and technologies. In addition there are diverse driving environments caused by differences in climate, topography, road design, traffic laws and support infrastructure. Hence a car designed to hurtle down the German autobahns will be different from one designed to flit down the uneven and sinuous roads of rural Wales. Perhaps the North American market, by virtue of its homogeneity and scale, along with the importance of price rather than dynamic performance, has emphasised the significance of mass production. Conversely, in Japan it is perhaps the nature of government regulation that has made the development of low volume models so expensive while this has been reinforced by a traditional concern for conservative design. While this remains a rather speculative account, it is clear that there is a tradition – still very much alive – for low volume car production in Europe.

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Lead–acid batteries for future automobiles

P.T. Moseley, ... J. Garche, in Lead-Acid Batteries for Future Automobiles, 2017

21.4.1 Start–stop vehicles and micro-hybrids (12 V)

For vehicles with a 12-V power-supply system, lead–acid has the advantage of being the incumbent (established) technology. The EFB variant can perform the basic SSV functions without further modification and, by virtue of its cost advantage, will probably remain the battery of choice for as long as the SSV commands a substantial market share. To maximize brake energy recuperation and to support increasingly demanding functions of electric vehicles, the next major challenge is to enhance the DCA for micro-hybrids without compromising high-temperature durability. In the past two decades, the addition of certain forms of carbon, together with other improvements to the negative electrode, has achieved at least a threefold increase in DCA, not only for the freshly discharged battery, but also during sustained customer operation at PSoC. (This technology has become colloquially known as 'lead–carbon'). Such modifications, however, tend to be accompanied by a substantial degradation of high-temperature durability as measured by established standard test methods. Nevertheless, early evidence suggests that the real-world impact of carbon additions on high-temperature durability is much lower than indicated by laboratory tests, if not negligible. For more than a decade now, the lead–acid battery industry has failed to address this perceived issue systematically, and most global car companies are still very hesitant to accept that the use of extra carbon represents a lasting solution. The one exception perhaps is the emergence of the UltraBattery™, which appears to deploy carbon effectively without adverse consequences. This unique technology is discussed in Chapter 12.

It should be recognized that the car industry is no longer pushing only for improvements in lead–acid technology, but is also seriously evaluating lithium-ion technology as a possible, yet not mature, alternative. In future automotive designs, the manufacturers have two options for energy/power storage, namely:

Either:

place a second battery, which offers not only high and sustained DCA, but also a simple redundancy feature, in parallel with the lead–acid battery that will be vital for driver assistance and automated driving systems where 12-V power-supply becomes critical for functional safety;

or:

a lithium-ion battery alone may become a drop-in replacement for the 12-V lead–acid battery, where it offers a substantial weight reduction, together with high and sustained DCA.

Lithium-ion chemistry still faces major challenges, however, and any improvement toward better winter performance would tend to degrade behaviour at high temperatures. Significant progress in battery technology, and also in cost reduction, can be expected in the coming decade (see Section 2.5.1, Chapter 2). A cost prediction of lead–acid and lithium-ion batteries is given in Fig. 21.5. Whereas there is much debate about future prices, it seems likely that lead–acid will retain a significant cost advantage for some time to come.

Figure 21.5. Cost prediction of lithium-ion and lead–acid batteries.

Courtesy of the Advanced Lead–Acid Battery Consortium 2530 Meridian Parkway, Suite 115, Durham, NC 27713, USA.

Given the prospect of competition from other battery chemistries, the lead–acid battery industry should rapidly increase the pace of innovation in the following areas.

•

Define, together with car companies, test methods that allow a realistic assessment of the impact of high-DCA technologies on high-temperature durability in field service, preferably in a collaborative approach that allows rapid benchmarking of competing designs.

•

Search for further optimization of technology, particularly with a goal of increasing DCA after PSoC run-in to levels that match the available free alternator current, i.e., around 2 A Ah−1, while still not deteriorating high-temperature durability.

•

Having developed high-DCA batteries with negligible high-temperature penalties, fast-track their mass production and commercialization.

•

Accomplish substantial weight reduction for EFBs that are often designed with large excess capacity to compensate for the poor active-mass utilization.

•

Utilize all further opportunities for cost reduction after basic EFB technologies have been proven in the field and can replace VRLA AGM batteries.

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Bone repair biomaterials in orthopedic surgery

Antonio Merolli, in Bone Repair Biomaterials (Second Edition), 2019

11.3.6 Carbon fibers and composites

Composite materials found large applications in aerospace and the car industry where an accurate modeling of the possible strains and stresses eventually endured by the artifact is possible. However, the more complex is the geometry and load cycle of an artifact, the more difficult and expensive will be its design and production. Composite materials made from carbon fibers and epoxidic resins were proposed for applications in orthopedic surgery to promote the replacement of metals (Fig. 11.13). However, in orthopedic surgery the possible unmasking of carbon fibers and their dispersion in the body may be a risk (Fig. 11.14). The high cost is also another big concern.

Figure 11.13. A carbon fiber-reinforced polymer experimental plate implanted in the rabbit and fixed with metallic screws.

Figure 11.14. Unmasking of carbon fibers from their epoxy embedding is documented in this experimental implant in the rabbit.

Application of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) composite implants in humans has been promoted in orthopedic and trauma surgery [34]. There are several theoretical advantages of CFRP implants: the modulus of elasticity is close to cortical bone; the bending strength can be even higher than metallic artifacts; the implants are radiotransparent and allow a better monitoring of fracture during and after surgery; and no cold welding occurs with the coupling of metallic screws. Due to the prominent advantage of X-ray transparency, CFRP implants also have a prospect of being used in patients who need to receive radiotherapy [35].

The literature documents the biocompatibility of materials in use, namely carbon fibers (CFs) and thermoplastics like PEEK and polyetherimide [36–38]. The actual interface with living tissues is the matrix polymer alone, while CFs are (or should be) deeply embedded in it without surfacing in direct contact with cells.

The past literature has already reported that sometimes CFs originating from a CFRP device can surface and come in direct contact with soft and hard tissues in humans; in this case an inflammatory reaction may ensue [39,40]. This may be a massive foreign body reaction with the typical granuloma formation, or a moderate fibrotic encapsulation of sparse fibers (Fig. 11.15) [39]. In any case, a properly designed and accurately implanted CFRP device should not expose its fibers during or after surgery.

Figure 11.15. A carbon fiber fragment detached from an implant in a human and observed after 11 months. It is loosely embedded in fibrous tissue.

Composites are trying to find their place in orthopedic surgery in other preparations [41]. The two most common families of composites proposed for orthopedic surgery are the biodegradable material–ceramics (or glass) composite [42–44] and the PE–hydroxyapatite composite [45].

Composites between a biodegradable polymer and a ceramic or a glass material have been developed with the aim of taking advantage of the degradability of the polymer while trying to avoid any excessive inflammatory reaction toward its breakdown products thanks to the bioceramic component, which should also help in the early stages of interacting with bone.

The same principle applies to the hydroxyapatite–PE composite [46]. These materials have already been applied in the clinic, in fields like inner-ear surgery and dental and maxillofacial surgery. Applications in orthopedic surgery are envisaged for small implants, such as those required in hand surgery, for example.

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Future trends in automotive body materials

Geoffrey Davies, in Materials for Automobile Bodies (Second Edition), 2012

Learning points

Due to the conservative nature of the volume car industry radical changes in the materials used for body structures are unlikely in the foreseeable future. However, significant progress has been made in the development of steels and aluminum alloys, allowing major weight reductions to be made in mass produced structures fabricated from both these materials.

An extensive range of material types has been considered, including proven contenders from other industries, e.g. aerospace, but unless significant cost reductions are evident, and mass production technology demonstrated, these are unlikely to find a wider application than niche or sports car production.

The urgency associated with environmental issues such as emissions and landfill controls is not yet sufficient to bring about more extreme changes. Steel and aluminum present no major recycling problem although plastics still require considerable development of innovative reuse techniques and product rationalization. Existing hybrid structures and planned fuel systems will allow most legislative fuel economy and emissions control legislation to be met in the longer term.

Most of the major motor manufacturers have adopted 'in-house' design procedures that aid the identification of materials at disassembly/segregation by dismantlers, and also ensure that materials are selected on the basis of known life-cycle impact regarding factors such as energy and costs. This normally embraces material production, conversion and recycling stages.

Competition between the major motor corporations will require the use of designs on an increasingly global basis to achieve economy of scale. This will call for increasing commonization of platforms, probably with 'tried and tested' materials. Further engineering initiatives, increasingly computer-aided, should enable the potential of newer materials to be realized in the longer term, although there is scope for improving the uniformity of databases and parameters used, for different materials.

Options for material choices have been made assuming that normal circumstances prevail. However, the trends prompted by a sudden or 'accelerated' change in conditions, such as a worldwide fuel shortage, are also considered. Under normal conditions the steel substructure would continue to be used until the cost of aluminum became more competitive for the volume production environment. The need for greater fuel economy under demanding conditions imposed within a short timeframe would then favor aluminum, although in mixed material structures rather than a complete transition – the basic manufacturing rules having already been established for the Audi A2. Assuming that progress had been made on the disposal of plastics, it is probable that suitable polymer types could be added to the hybrid structure, the type dependent on horizontal or vertical orientation.

It is likely that niche cars will also adopt increasingly hybrid body construction. Carbon fiber composite will be utilized to exploit its advantages with regard to safety and weight, once faster manufacturing methods evolve. This trend would be accelerated under conditions of extreme fuel economy, where design (minimal weight with strength exactly where required) and power-to-weight ratio would be enhanced.

Materials development is likely to take the form of enhancement of existing materials, e.g. prepainted sheet, 'in-mold coated' polymer panels and alloy modifications, rather than the introduction of radically different metals/polymers.

The trend to 'electromobility' will necessitate different body architecture, calling for different material utilization to offset heavier power packs and provide additional crash protection to drive systems. Current steel-based systems could gradually give way to hybridized bodies allowing the introduction of composites in the upper body over steel/aluminum substructures.

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The shape of the future

Paul Nieuwenhuis, Peter Wells, in The Automotive Industry and the Environment, 2003

15.1 Introduction

It is clear that change is going to happen in the car industry. What is unclear is the extent and the nature and direction of this change. There are a number of possible trajectories along which this change can take place. This chapter explores two key issues: different approaches to vehicle manufacturing and different structures for the automotive industry. The basic contention is that these two issues are closely related. Distinct vehicle manufacturing strategies create the potential for different industrial structures. The examples of vehicle manufacturing and industry structure given are not intended to be exhaustive or definitive, but examples of the direction(s) the industry could take. Indeed, if there is one single expectation it is that there will be coexisting automotive industries in the future. The first half of this chapter accordingly explores several different manufacturing strategies. The second half considers the implications for industry structure as a whole. The latter is much more contentious, involving as it does multiple (and often conflicting) interests.

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Sheet Metal Forming

Erik Tempelman, ... Bruno Ninaber van Eyben, in Manufacturing and Design, 2014

Matched die forming

This method is ideal for mass production, and is the process of choice for the car industry, where cycle times of mere seconds per part are quite normal. It resembles deep drawing and is in fact often (but erroneously) referred to as such, but now the lower side of the blank is fully supported by the lower die (Figure 4.15). In practice, parts can contain stretched (ε1 and ε2 both positive) as well as drawn (ε1 positive, ε2 negative) and bent areas. Ideally, both dies match perfectly (hence, of course, the method's name), even after taking into account the thickness changes that the blank undergoes. The setup work needed to obtain this match is time-consuming and costly, not to mention that the dies themselves are usually made from tool steel, which is expensive to shape to begin with. The car industry demands extremely high surface quality, again adding cost. Furthermore, most parts require a succession of forming steps—sometimes up to seven operations, including edge trimming—which makes the part-specific investments even higher. Not surprisingly, even large car manufacturers try to share matched die-formed parts among as many different car "platforms" as possible. However, if somewhat softer alloys are formed and if the requirements for tolerances and finish are less stringent, then matched die forming can be quite attractive even in volumes of just a few thousand units, thanks to "soft tooling" materials such as aluminum, epoxy, or even concrete.

Figure 4.15. Schematic for (a) matched die forming and (b) typical application.

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Quality control of mass production components based on defect analysis

Yukitaka Murakami, in Metal Fatigue (Second Edition), 2019

24.4.2 Reconsideration of the stress–strength model

The design concept of automobile components based on the stress–strength model of Fig. 24.12 has been commonly presented in car industry conferences. This model assumes normal distributions both in service loading stresses and in component strengths. Is this assumption correct?

Figure 24.12. Stress–strength model.

Is the number of endurance tests sufficient for confirming the normal distribution of component strength? Let's think of a fatigue specimen instead of a component. Fatigue failure of a fatigue specimen occurs at the weakest part of the specimen. If we assume the specimen is a set of many small disk specimens cut from one specimen, as shown in Fig. 24.13, then the fracture of the specimen occurs at the weakest of the set of disk specimens. If we assume that the strength of the individual specimens of the set of disk specimens obeys the normal distribution, then the representative value (weakest value) of N specimens does not obey the normal distribution but obeys the statistics of extremes of the weakest specimen [5,24]. Thus, it is necessary to reconsider the validity of the stress–strength model which has been accepted as the basic design concept in the automobile industry.

Figure 24.13. Fatigue failure at the weakest section. One smooth specimen can be assumed as a set of many small disk specimens.

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Introduction

Paul Nieuwenhuis, Peter Wells, in The Automotive Industry and the Environment, 2003

1.5 The CO2 issue – agenda for change

The perceived need to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide in order to avert global warming is now the main agenda driving the car industry in Europe and the Far East. Over the next ten years this will begin to change the nature of the cars we drive. The most influential force is the voluntary agreement between the European Commission and the European vehicle manufacturers' association, ACEA. The agreement stipulates that by 2008 the average emissions of CO2 should be down to 140 g/km, while by 2012 they should have reached 120 g/km. This is from a late 1990s average of around 170 g/km. The agreement has also been accepted by the vehicle producers of Japan and South Korea, through their representative bodies, respectively JAMA and KAMA.

This issue has also further widened the gap between the US and the rest of the world. It emphasises America's automotive insularity; the so-called Big 3 of General Motors, Ford and Chrysler make cars for the US, but the few exports they achieve is a bonus, rather than essential. Conventional economic wisdom holds that exports are the key to success for any country and any industry; a large home market may compensate for this although the Big 3 do of course operate global production networks. At least as important are the possible implications of growing automobility in newly emerging economies, particularly the more populous ones such as Indonesia, India and China. Even relatively limited automobility in these countries could enable them to rapidly eclipse the US as principal automotive CO2 emitter.

This first chapter has set the scene for some dramatic changes to the world's largest manufacturing sector, and explained how it came to be where it is today. Some of these issues will be explored in greater depth and pointers will be given to the nature of the changes expected in the near future, as well as some possible future automobility models.

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Development of permanent magnet generators to integrate wind turbines into electricity transmission and distribution networks

S. Mouty, C. Espanet, in Eco-Friendly Innovation in Electricity Transmission and Distribution Networks, 2015

12.5.2 Stator with a concentrated winding

In order to reduce the length of the end winding, a solution, which is often used for machines having power lower than 10 kW in the avionic and car industries, consists of having a fractional number of slots per pole and per phase, which obviates crossing between the different coils. This can be interesting for increasing the power density of permanent magnet machines. Particular design rules, different from conventional ones, must be followed to find a solution suitable for large machines. Some combinations between the number of slots and the number of poles can be used. Each will lead to a different winding factor, as presented in Figure 12.17.

Figure 12.17. Winding factors for different configurations.

Having a high winding factor is interesting for achieving a high torque density. But it will be necessary to check the forces on the active components. In some cases, it is possible to have some magnetic unbalance, as mentioned in Magnussen and Lendenmann (2007). Other advantages can be induced by the fact that there are no crossings between the coils. For example, when a winding with two coils by slots is chosen, an air gap will be present between the two coils, as described in Figure 12.18. This air gap can be used as an air duct, resulting in air flow in order to enable cooling close to the heat source (coils).

Figure 12.18. Localization of the air ducts.

A second example is the simplicity of removing a coil during the exploitation of the machine, which can make the maintenance operations of the stator easier. As explained before, this is a significant advantage for offshore wind applications.

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Conclusions and implications

Paul Nieuwenhuis, Peter Wells, in The Automotive Industry and the Environment, 2003

18.3 The UK – a special case?

In many countries the UK is regarded as, at best, a second rate player in the world motor industry. Over the past few decades, the UK has lost most of its indigenous volume car makers and most of its significant truck makers as well. Although the number of cars built has reached record levels, these are built in factories owned by non-British companies. What is more, much of the product development for the cars made in these factories is now carried out elsewhere. What remains in the UK, and is UK-owned, is one volume producer – MG-Rover – accompanied by a myriad of small specialist firms making cars in limited numbers, as well as a dynamic kit car sector and a flourishing aftermarket sector, particularly to support the classic car and motor racing markets. However, the latter do operate in a global market. Most interesting, though, is the UK's large design engineering sector, a network of small and medium-sized firms that carry out product development work for vehicle producers worldwide. Linked with this sub-sector is the British motor racing industry. In a previous publication these sectors have been called the 'fringe of gold' (Wells et al., 1999). The UK boasts a large number of very small specialist producers. An increasing number of these have developed considerable engineering and design expertise over the years and in addition to spicing up the UK car market and several export markets, are able to charge other manufacturers for their consultancy or sub-contracting services (Wells et al., 1999). Lotus is probably the most famous of these, although there are several others that play a significant role in the UK automotive sector.

Although other countries have their own small specialist car makers – Venturi and Aixam in France, Ferrari and Maserati in Italy, Isdera in Germany or Panoz in the US – in terms of the number of these compared to the industry as a whole, the UK is unique. Liberal Type Approval and taxation regimes have historically not sought to restrict the sector as in other countries. Other factors also play a role, notably the solid base of enthusiasts in the UK market as illustrated by the historical love of sports cars, the traditional love of motorsport and the sophisticated engineering skills available in the cradle of the Industrial Revolution. For these reasons the sector is also very dynamic, with new players appearing all the time, while others falter.

If there is any sector of the 'fringe of gold' that shows that Britain is still a force to be reckoned with in the automotive world it is the competition car industry. Players here build Formula One racing cars, world class rally cars, group C sports cars, as well as cars for formulae such as the North American IndyCar, not even run in the UK. Such is the influence of the UK in this sector that no Formula One racing cars are made without UK input. In fact, even Ferrari had a UK technical centre for its Formula One racing team for a number of years, although its has now concentrated all its activities in Italy. Rather than being a marginal activity, motor racing is moving towards the core activities of many manufacturers in a way it has not done since the early years of the twentieth century. Hugh Chambers, then marketing director of Prodrive – builders of Subaru's world championship rally cars in the 1990s – explains:

In a world where the car is in danger of being an over-engineered commodity product, the one true marketplace differentiator is the brand itself. The role of motorsport is to develop that brand personality and give it meaning and life. As the marketing world moves towards brand experiences … so there will be more and more emphasis on motorsport programmes aimed at long-term brand building. (Wells et al., 1999:112–13)

If he is right, the true potential of this sector of the UK automotive industry is still to be realised. Players in this field range from designers, developers and builders racing their own cars, such as McLaren and Williams, to small specialist suppliers of parts made exclusively in the UK, but used worldwide. What is of interest is that these various sub-sectors that flourish in the UK have developed expertise in a range of technologies that appear to be highly suited to the new types of future car we and others propose. This is particularly true for the low volume technologies increasingly needed to meet the diversified demands of developed markets. This has already been recognised by some and Hypercar Inc., for example, has a base in the UK to try and benefit from this expertise. Foresight Vehicle has also tried to capture this knowledge and experience and move it towards possible future car technologies.

If the existing Buddist–Fordist automotive system is genuinely on the way out then those economies not encumbered by this now 'old' technology will be less affected. If they in addition already have an advantage in the required new technologies they are well placed to benefit. Job losses due to the phasing out of the old system can be absorbed by the growth in the new system. However, though theoretically well placed in this respect, the UK would need to actively prepare for such a change in order to truly benefit and become a dominant player. The UK Government, traditionally reluctant to fully engage in industrial policy of any kind, would have to overcome this reluctance and become fully and actively supportive of the necessary preparation process.

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