Motivation:

7 Motivation: Why Do We Do

What We Do?

PREVIEW QUIZ

True or False

1. T F Biological drives are regulated by a principle known as hyperstatic

integration.

2. T F General drives, unlike biological drives, are not inborn.

3. T F The need for autonomy is a motive to do what one wants to do.

4. T F According to Freud, all motives are conscious.

5. T F The need for self-actualization is the need to maximize one's talents

and potentialities.

(Answers can be found on page 105.)

Chapter 6 emphasized the point of view that much of our behavior is

determined by what we have learned. Another factor that determines much

of our behavior is motivation. Motives can be thought of as the forces

behind our actions. Learning and motivation have a close relationship.

They interact. For example, a motive may impel an action, but learning

Motivation: Why Do We Do What We Do? 91

directs the way it is expressed. In this chapter you will discover the significant

role that motivation plays in behavior.

Objectives

After completing this chapter, you will be able to

• define the concept of motivation;

• list and describe the principal biological drives;

• specify the characteristics of the general drives;

• identify some of the principal acquired motives;

• explain the nature of unconscious motives;

• define the concept of self-actualization;

• explain the importance of the will to meaning.

Human beings spend most of their time during the day engaged in actions.

They drive cars, raise children, have vocations, spend time with hobbies, go on

vacations, gamble, take unnecessary risks, play, and so forth. Why do we do what

we do? This is the great question associated with the subject of motivation.

The word motivation is related to words such as motor, motion, and emotion.

(Emotion is discussed in chapter 8.) All of these words imply some form of activity,

some kind of movement. And this is one of the principal features of life—a

kind of restless movement that appears to arise from sources within the organism.

These sources are called motives.

A motive is a state of physiological or psychological arousal that is assumed to

play a causal role in behavior. Physiological arousal refers to such states as hunger

and thirst. Psychological arousal refers to motives such as the need for achievement.

The two factors, physiological and psychological, of course interact. For

example, a biological drive such as sex tends to interact with a psychological

motive such as the need to be loved.

It is important to note that from the point of view of psychology as a science, a

motive is an intervening variable. An intervening variable is a variable used to

explain behavior. It is assumed to reside within the organism and "intervene"

between stimulus and response. An intervening variable can't be seen or otherwise

directly observed. It is inferred from studying behavior. If we see someone buying a

sandwich in a snack bar, we may infer that the individual is hungry. However, he or

she may in fact be buying the sandwich for a friend. The important point is that when

we act as investigators of the behavior of others, we do not experience their motives.

92 PSYCHOLOGY

(a) The word motivation is related to words such as motor, motion, and emotion. All of

these words imply some form of activity, some kind of .

(b) From the point of view of psychology as a science, a motive is an .

Answers: (a) movement; (b) intervening variable.

Biological Drives: The Need for Food and Water

We would not do anything at all if we were not alive. That is why in some sense it

can be argued that the root cause of all behavior can be traced to a group of biological

drives. Biological drives are inborn drives, and their principal feature is that

they impel us to attend to our tissue needs, to maintain ourselves as organisms. The

basic theme associated with biological drives is survival.We would die fairly quickly

if we did not follow the dictates of our biological drives on a fairly regular basis.

The biological drives are familiar. The following are frequently specified:

hunger, thirst, sleep, temperature, oxygen hunger, pain, and sex. Note that if the

word hunger appears without an adjective in front of it, then the word refers to the

hunger for food. Also note how any of the biological drives can act as a motive.

For example, if your temperature level is such that you feel cold, you might be

motivated to put a coat on.

Most of the drives direct us toward a stimulus. We seek food if we are hungry.

We seek water if we are thirsty. Pain is unlike the other drives in this particular

regard. Pain directs us away from a stimulus. It motivates us to escape from the

source of the pain.

Sex also has a unique status among the biological drives. The general theme

of the biological drives, as already noted, is survival. Usually we think of this as

the survival of the individual. However, in the case of sex, survival is generalized

beyond the individual. The long-run purpose of sex is to assure the survival of

the species.

(a) Biological drives are drives.

(b) The basic theme associated with biological drives is .

Answers: (a) inborn; (b) survival; (c) away.

An important physiological process associated with the biological drives is

homeostasis. Homeostasis is a physiological process characterized by a tendency

for biological drives to maintain themselves at optimal levels of arousal. The term

homeostasis was introduced in the 1920s by the physiologist Walter B. Cannon, and

it can be roughly translated as "an unchanging sameness."

Motivation: Why Do We Do What We Do? 93

The hunger drive provides an example of how homeostasis works. If your

blood sugar is low, you will feel hungry. You will be motivated to seek food and

eat. If you eat an appropriate amount of food, your blood sugar will gradually

rise to an optimal level. On the other hand, if you happen to overeat, your blood

sugar will rapidly rise to an overly high level. Under these circumstances, your

pancreas will secrete extra insulin, returning your blood sugar from its overly

high level to a lower one. The body's goal is to maintain blood sugar at an optimal

level.

Hormones, secretions of the endocrine glands, also play a role in mediating the

activity of the biological drives. We have already seen in chapter 3 how the hormone

melatonin is involved in the regulation of sleep. It was also noted in the same

chapter that the estrogen hormones and testosterone are associated with the sexual

drive.

Biological drives play a significant role in the learning process. Drive reduction

theory states that when an action pays off in such a way that it reduces the

tension associated with a biological drive in a state of arousal, then that action is

reinforced. It is reinforcing for a hungry rat in an operant conditioning apparatus

to obtain food by pressing a lever. This principle can be readily generalized to

some human behavior. A hunter's learned actions provide an example. These may

include how to load a particular kind of gun or the skills involved in tracking a

specific animal. If the ultimate goal of a series of actions is food, water, escape

from pain, sexual gratification, or another biological drive, then the drive reduction

principle may operate to shape learned behavior.

(a) Homeostasis is a physiological process characterized by a tendency for biological drives

to maintain themselves at levels of arousal.

(b) Drive reduction theory states than when an action pays off in such a way that it reduces

the tension associated with a biological drive in a state of arousal, then that action is

Answers: (a) optimal; (b) reinforced.

General Drives: Looking for New Experiences

General drives, like biological drives, are inborn. Unlike biological drives,

they do not appear to operate on the principle of homeostasis. Three general

drives of particular interest are the curiosity drive, the activity drive, and the

affectional drive.

The curiosity drive urges us to seek novel stimulation, to look for new

experiences. The drive is active in infants. Present an infant with a familiar rattle.

The infant may show a little interest, and then put the rattle aside. Present the

infant with a second, unfamiliar rattle. Interest will be renewed. The renewed

94 PSYCHOLOGY

interest is explained by the curiosity drive. The different color or the different

shape of the novel rattle elicits attention. The curiosity drive is activated by

change of stimulation.

The need for stimulation is a profound one. Sensory deprivation research

brings this point into bold relief. Sensory deprivation exists when vision, hearing,

and the other senses are forced to operate with little or no information arising

from the external world. Volunteer subjects deprived of light, sound, and

other information to the senses often report sensory hallucinations. Some see flying

fireballs. Others hear strange music. Some have out-of-body experiences. All

of this suggests that it is necessary to have a flow of stimulation in order to maintain

perceptual stability.

And change of stimulation, sought by the curiosity drive, has a greater value

than constant stimulation. The same note played over and over and over again is

experienced as boring. A series of notes played in different pitches and with time

variations becomes an interesting melody.

(a) Like biological drives, general drives are also .

(b) The curiosity drive is activated by .

little or no information arising from the external world?

Answers: (a) inborn; (b) change of stimulation; (c) Sensory deprivation.

The curiosity drive may also play a role in risk-taking behavior, behavior

in which individuals unnecessarily place themselves in physical jeopardy. Examples

of such behavior include sky diving, hang gliding, hot air ballooning, driving

over the speed limit, and so forth. One interpretation of such behavior is to

hypothesize that some individuals have self-destructive tendencies. And it is

possible that such tendencies may play an important role in the behavior. A second

interpretation of risk-taking behavior is to hypothesize that some individuals

are somewhat bored with their day-to-day lives, lives that do not include

enough change of stimulation. Risk-taking behavior is one way of increasing

the level of stimulation, increasing central nervous system arousal, and experiencing

excitement.

A second general drive to be identified is the activity drive, one that urges

us to make motor movements even when our biological drives are satisfied. A

rat that is not hungry, thirsty, nor otherwise in biological need can be placed in

a wheeled cage. If it runs, the cage will spin. And the rat will run for no particular

reason other than to run. Infants display a certain amount of restless

motion. If an adult is forced to sit and wait for a long time in a physician's office,

it is likely that the individual will cross and uncross his or her legs, get up and

walk around, step outside for a few minutes, and so forth. The movement is an

end in itself.

Motivation: Why Do We Do What We Do? 95

(a) is behavior in which individuals unnecessarily place themselves in

physical jeopardy.

(b) What drive urges us to make motor movements even when our biological drives are

satisfied?

Answers: (a) Risk-taking behavior; (b) The activity drive.

A third general drive to be identified is the affectional drive, the need for

the kind of emotional nurturance that helps to sustain a sense of well-being and

an optimistic attitude toward life. The research psychologist Harry Harlow, a former

president of the American Psychological Association, deprived a group of

rhesus monkeys of their biological mothers. He raised the monkeys in social isolation.

He discovered that, deprived of mother love, many of the monkeys displayed

behavior somewhat similar to infantile autism, a pathological condition

characterized by a lack of interest in others, self-destructiveness, and a preoccupation

with rigid, self-oriented behavior.

The psychoanalyst Erik Erikson, an important personality theorist, theorized

that the first stage of psychosocial development is trust versus mistrust (see

chapter 13). If an infant develops a sense of trust during the first two years of life,

this positive foundation will have a beneficial impact on future personality development.

If an infant develops a sense of mistrust during the first two years of life,

this negative foundation will have an adverse impact on future personality development.

A major factor in the development of a sense of trust is the meeting of

an infant's need for affection.

(a) What drive is characterized by the need for the kind of emotional nurturance that helps

to sustain a sense of well being?

(b) What pathological condition is characterized by a lack of interest in others, selfdestructiveness,

and a preoccupation with rigid, self-oriented behavior?

Answers: (a) The affectional drive; (b) Infantile autism; (c) Trust versus mistrust.

Acquired Motives: Exploring the Need to Achieve

Acquired motives are motives in which learning plays a large role. This does not

mean that acquired motives do not have underpinnings in biological and general

drives. However, these drives have been modified by experience, and express

themselves in ways that are unique to the individual. One way to look at acquired

motives is to think of them as somewhat stable, persistent behavioral tendencies.

Quite a bit is known about a person if one is familiar with the pattern of that per-

96 PSYCHOLOGY

son's acquired motives. These motives are also sometimes called social motives,

meaning they affect the way we relate to other people.

First, the need for achievement is a motive to reach one's goals. All social

motives can be thought of as ranging from high to low. A person with a high need

for achievement is likely to be ambitious, strive to make a success of a business, or

earn academic recognition. A person with a low need for achievement may lack

ambition, be unconcerned about financial reward, and have very few dreams or

aspirations.

(a) Acquired motives are motives in which plays a large role.

(b) Because they impact on the way in which we relate to other people, acquired motives

are sometimes called motives.

a high .

Answers: (a) learning; (b) social; (c) need for achievement.

Second, the need for autonomy is a motive to do what one wants to do

without too much regard for what others expect. The need is reflected in phrases

such as "do your own thing" or "I'm doing it my way." A person with a high need

for autonomy is likely to pursue a pathway in life that is self-defined. A person

with a low need for autonomy often feels that he or she is the victim of the

demands of others.

Third, the need for order is a motive that urges the individual to impose

organization on the immediate environment. A person with a high need for order

is likely to keep good records, have important papers neatly filed, dislike clutter in

the home, and so forth. A person with a low need for order doesn't seem to mind

a certain amount of disorganization in the immediate environment. Neatness does

not have a high priority.

Fourth, the need for affiliation is a motive to associate with others. A person

with a high need for affiliation is likely to have a lot of friends, socialize frequently,

and dislike being alone. A person with a low need for affiliation will

have a few carefully selected friends, not be attracted to parties, and seek time

alone.

(a) The need for is a motive to do what one wants to do.

(b) The need for is a motive that urges the individual to impose organization

on the immediate environment.

Answers: (a) autonomy; (b) order; (c) affiliation.

Motivation: Why Do We Do What We Do? 97

Fifth, the need for dominance is a motive to control the behavior of others.

A person with a high need for dominance will seek positions of authority in the

workplace or to be the principal decision maker in a marriage. A person with a low

need for dominance will tend to be somewhat submissive and often overly agreeable.

Sixth, the need for exhibition is a motive to be noticed by others. A person

with a high need for exhibition is likely to talk loudly, dress in novel ways, or

otherwise call attention to himself or herself. A person with a low need for exhibition

is likely to be somewhat retiring and conforming when relating to others.

Seventh, the need for aggression is a motive to engage in conflict or to hurt

others. A person with a high need for aggression may inflict physical harm on

others by hitting, cutting, or shooting. However the need for aggression can also

be expressed in psychological terms. A person with a high need for aggression is

likely to be insulting and to make demeaning remarks. A person with a low need

for aggression is likely to avoid conflict whenever possible and to avoid hurting the

feelings of others.

There are other acquired motives. The list above is representative, not

exhaustive.

Although the acquired motives were presented in terms of high and low needs,

many people, perhaps most, do not manifest the extremes. It is possible to have a

moderate need for achievement, a moderate need for autonomy, and so forth.

(a) The need for is a motive to control the behavior of others.

(b) The need for is a motive to be noticed by others.

Answers: (a) dominance; (b) exhibition; (c) aggression.

Unconscious Motives: Hidden Reasons for Our Behavior

Sigmund Freud, the father of psychoanalysis, believed that motives can be

unconscious. Unconscious motives may operate outside of the control of the

ego, the "I" of the personality. Freud asserted that there is a force in the mind

called repression. Repression is an ego defense mechanism characterized by an

involuntary tendency to shove mental information that threatens the integrity

and stability of the ego down to an unconscious psychological domain (see

chapter 13).

If Freud is correct, the reasons for human behavior are often obscure to the

individual. People act on impulse, do things they regret, and often muddle

through life. Some individuals appear to have only the murkiest of notions why

they make certain choices and take certain turns in life. Freud's way of looking at

98 PSYCHOLOGY

human motivation is particularly useful when one is trying to explain why people

do self-defeating things.

The two kinds of motives that tend to be repressed are forbidden sexual desires

and forbidden aggressive urges. Note the importance of the word forbidden. A

desire for sex with one's spouse would not qualify as a forbidden sexual desire.

However, if Conrad, a married man, desires sex with his wife's sister, then this is

likely to violate his moral code and to become repressed. Conrad finds himself, for

example, becoming hostile to his wife's sister. He tells his wife that he doesn't like

her sister and wishes she wouldn't visit so often. His wife can't understand why he

has so much animosity toward her sister.

The explanation for the animosity lies in an ego defense mechanism called

reaction formation (see chapter 13). A reaction formation reinforces the repression.

By acting hostile toward a woman he is attracted to, the husband keeps her

at a distance, alienates her, and protects himself against his repressed sexual desire.

The behavior is, of course, self-defeating because he is undermining the quality of

his relationship with his wife and a relative.

(a) According to Freud, what force in the mind creates unconscious motives?

(b) The two kinds of motives that tend to be unconscious are forbidden desires

and forbidden urges.

Answers: (a) Repression; (b) sexual; aggressive.

One of the problems with unconscious motives is that they may lead to acting

out, behavior in which the unconscious motives gain temporary ascendancy

over the defense mechanism of repression. For example, Conrad has had one

drink too many at a New Year's Eve party. He finds himself kissing or touching

his wife's sister in an inappropriate way. She is furious, tells Conrad's wife, and

Conrad's marriage is threatened. The next day, sober, he says he can't understand

"what took possession of me."

Here is an example of how a forbidden aggressive urge can cause a problem in

living. Linette, a mother of three children and a full-time homemaker, is married

to Eric, an insurance broker. Eric is an authoritarian husband. He is demanding

and controlling and has very little regard for Linette's feelings. She feels taken for

granted. In terms of her religious tradition and her concept of how a good wife

should behave, she does not allow herself the luxury of hostile feelings toward Eric

at a conscious level. Her frustrations induce her to feel aggressive toward Eric, but

her code of conduct is such that she needs to repress her wish to give him a piece

of her mind or refuse to be the sweet person she usually tries to be. The repressed

hostility takes its toll. She suffers from a moderate, chronic depression. When she

is cooking, she burns food "by accident." She is an unenthusiastic sex partner.

According to Freud, forbidden sexual impulses and forbidden aggressive urges

play a significant role in self-defeating behaviors. Actions that seem paradoxical

Motivation: Why Do We Do What We Do? 99

and superficially unexplainable can be understood by examining the way in which

repressed motives express themselves in devious ways.

(a) What term describes behavior in which the unconscious motives gain temporary ascendancy

over the defense mechanism of repression?

(b) Linette burns her husband's food "by accident." This may be an example of .

Answers: (a) Acting out; (b) repressed hostility.

Self-Actualization: Becoming the Person

You Were Meant to Be

Abraham Maslow, author of Toward a Psychology of Being and a principal advocate

of the humanistic viewpoint in psychology, presented a large-canvas description of

human motivation. This description is known as Maslow's hierarchy of needs.

Cognitive needs

Esteem needs

Love and belongingness needs

Safety needs

Physiological needs

The need for

self-actualization

Maslow's hierarchy of needs.

100 PSYCHOLOGY

According to Maslow, human needs can be ranked in terms of "lower needs" and

"higher needs."

Imagine a pyramid in six layers. The needs ascend from the lower needs at the

base of the pyramid to the higher needs at the apex. The first layer of the pyramid

represents physiological needs. These are the need for food, water, and so forth.

These are associated with the biological drives, already discussed toward the

beginning of the chapter.

The second layer of the pyramid represents safety needs. These include the

need for shelter, protection from injury, and so forth. Safety needs are reflected in

such individual behaviors as wearing a seat belt and such social behaviors as organizing

a police force.

(a) The first layer of a pyramid structured according to Maslow's hierarchy of needs represents

needs.

(b) The second layer of the pyramid represents needs.

Answers: (a) physiological; (b) safety.

The third layer of the pyramid represents love and belongingness needs.

These include the need for affection, the need to love, and the need to be loved.

Love and belongingness needs are reflected in such behaviors as joining a club,

forming friendships, getting married, and having children. The importance of

love and belongingness needs is evident in many popular songs. They frequently

focus on the elation one feels when a love relationship is going well or the despair

one feels when such a relationship is going badly.

The fourth layer of the pyramid represents esteem needs. These include

the need to be esteemed by others and self-esteem. The need to be esteemed by

others is reflected in behaviors such as seeking a higher rank within an organization

or working for a prestigious award or degree. Self-esteem is the sense of

value that one feels about oneself. It is a kind of inner psychological ranking.

Low self-esteem is associated with depression and a pessimistic outlook on life.

High self-esteem is associated with a positive mood and an optimistic outlook

on life.

The fifth layer of the pyramid represents cognitive needs. Cognitive needs

include the need for mental stimulation, the need to use one's intelligence, and

the need to exercise creative abilities. Cognitive needs are reflected in such behaviors

as reading a book, writing a story, working a crossword puzzle, taking a class,

solving a problem, and so forth.

(a) The third layer of the Maslow pyramid represents and needs.

(b) The fourth layer of the pyramid represents needs.

Motivation: Why Do We Do What We Do? 101

Answers: (a) love; belongingness; (b) esteem; (c) cognitive.

The sixth and top layer of the pyramid represents the need for selfactualization.

Of all the needs, this is the one that is primarily associated with

the thinking and research of Maslow. Maslow hypothesized that this need is

inborn. Also, it is emergent, meaning that it only becomes a pressing need when

the other lower needs are relatively satisfied. The need for self-actualization is the

need to maximize one's talents and potentialities. It is sometimes informally

phrased as "the need to become the person you were meant to be."

The need for self-actualization is reflected in such behaviors as working

toward success in a vocational field or seeking way of life that represents one's own

idea of personal fulfillment. There is no field of work or style of life that can be

specified, because the individual's choice and perception are of particular importance.

For one person, self-actualization might mean the pursuit of an acting

career. For another person, self-actualization might mean becoming a parent. The

important thing, according to Maslow, is that the individual discovers what is right

for himself or herself.

Maslow's research suggested that many, perhaps most, people are not selfactualizing.

The price paid for a failure to be self-actualizing is a sense of disappointment

in life and in oneself.

(a) The sixth layer of the Maslow pyramid represents the need for .

(b) The need for self-actualization is the need to maximize one's and

Answers: (a) self-actualization; (b) talents; potentialities.

On the other hand, if one is in fact self-actualizing, there are important psychological

rewards associated with the process. First, one will tend to experience

both a general sense of psychological health and a pleasant day-to-day emotional

tone. Second, the individual will from time to time have peak experiences.

These are moments or joy or ecstasy when a hurdle is overcome, a task is completed,

or a goal is reached.

Note that a person is not referred to as self-actualized, but as self-actualizing.

Maslow is talking about the process of becoming, not an end state. Self-actualization

as a process can be a rich source of psychological reward for most of one's life.

Maslow makes a distinction between deficiency motivation and being motivation.

Deficiency motivation refers to those needs lowest on the hierarchy. We

need to overcome deficiency states such as hunger, thirst, and danger in order to

move upward toward the higher levels. Being motivation tends to be associated

102 PSYCHOLOGY

with the higher levels, particularly with the need for self-actualization. The theme

of being motivation is growth.

(a) Peak experiences are moments of or .

(b) What kind of motivation refers to needs lowest on Maslow's hierarchy?

Answers: (a) joy; ecstasy; (b) Deficiency motivation; (c) Being motivation.

The Search for Meaning: Looking for the Why of Life

It would seem that self-actualization is the greatest height that can be reached by

human motivation, and from reading Maslow's writings one would get that distinct

impression. Nonetheless, it can be argued that there is one motivational level

extending above self-actualization. The existential psychiatrist Viktor Frankl,

author of Man's Search for Meaning, argues that the highest level for human beings

is the will to meaning, the need for life to make sense and to have a purpose in

the larger scheme of things.

Frankl asserts that the will to meaning is inborn, that it is a real psychological

and emotional need. If a person lives a meaningful life, then that life will be full

and rewarding. If a person lives a meaningless life, then that life will be empty and

pointless. Frankl calls this adverse mental and emotional state the existential vacuum.

One of its principal characteristics is demoralization, the conviction that

nothing has any value and that nothing is worth doing.

Some of Frankl's assertions about the importance of our search for meaning

arise from his own experiences in a Nazi concentration camp. Although he was a

prisoner himself, he did not forget that he was a physician and a psychiatrist. He

felt it was his responsibility to give comfort and aid to his fellow prisoners whenever

possible. This became his reason for living, and he credits it with his ability to

survive under extremely harsh conditions. He argues that when a human being

has a reason for existence, he or she can often tolerate a high level of pain and frustration.

It is instructive to note that the original title of Man's Search for Meaning

was From Death Camp to Existentialism.

(a) Frankl argues that the highest level of motivation for human beings is the .

(b) The term used to identify an empty and pointless life is the .

Answers: (a) will to meaning; (b) existential vacuum.

How is meaning fulfilled? Frankl argues that the will to meaning orients

itself toward values, perceived aspects of the world that seem to have worth or

Motivation: Why Do We Do What We Do? 103

importance to other individuals or to humanity in general. This may seem very

exalted, but in practice it can be very basic. Being fair and decent in one's dealings

with friends and relatives is an example of a value. Raising one's children

in a loving way is another example. For most people, meaning can readily be

found in living traditional social roles—being an effective teacher, parent, nurse,

auto mechanic, loving partner, and so forth. Note that in all of these social roles

there is some service or contribution to others. The will to meaning reaches

beyond the self.

For some people, humanity in general is served by the will to meaning. When

we think of great authors, scientists, or leaders, we see that their contributions to

life extend beyond an immediate family to the larger human family. But the basic

theme is the same—a concern with the welfare of others.

Frankl argues that values do not have to be invented. They need to be discovered.

He says that a person suffering from an existential vacuum is like a person in

a room with the lights out. The individual thinks that there is no furniture in the

room because he or she can't see it. Then the lights are turned on and the furniture

becomes visible. Values, like the pieces of furniture in the room, are real and

present. But they have to be discovered by the light of human consciousness in

order for the individual to have a meaningful life.

(a) Values are perceived aspects of the world that seem to have or

to other individuals or to humanity in general.

(b) Frankl argues that values do not have to be invented. Instead, they need to be

Answers: (a) worth; importance; (b) discovered.

SELF-TEST

1. From the point of view of psychology as a science a motive is

a. a dependent variable

b. an independent variable

c. a radical variable

d. an intervening variable

2. A physiological process characterized by a tendency for biological drives to

maintain themselves at optimal levels of arousal is called

a. homeostasis

b. metamotivation

c. hyperstatic integration

d. heterostasis

104 PSYCHOLOGY

3. Which of the following is clearly associated with the curiosity drive?

a. The need to escape from pain

b. The need for affiliation

c. The search for meaning in life

d. The tendency to seek novel stimulation

4. Which of the following is a motive to associate with others?

a. The need for dominance

b. The need for exhibition

c. The need for aggression

d. The need for affiliation

5. According to Freud, what force in the mind is responsible for the creation of

unconscious motives?

a. Repression

b. Ego inhibition

c. Superego excitation

d. Homeostasis

6. Which one of the following is associated with cognitive needs?

a. Seeking a higher rank within an organization

b. Working a crossword puzzle

c. Looking for love

d. Searching for shelter

7. Self-actualization is most closely linked to which of the following?

a. Feeling hungry

b. Maximizing potentialities

c. Seeking novel stimulation

d. Wanting affection

8. What does Maslow call moments of joy or ecstasy experienced when a hurdle

is overcome, a task is completed, or a goal is reached?

a. Hedonic experiences

b. Transcendental experiences

c. Peak experiences

d. Summit experiences

9. Frankl argues that the highest level of motivation for human beings is the

a. will to meaning

b. need for transcendental experience

c. wish to become one with the All

d. desire to exercise the will to power

Motivation: Why Do We Do What We Do? 105

10. If a person lives a meaningless life, then that life will be empty and pointless.

Frankl calls this mental and emotional state

a. major depressive episode

b. bipolar disorder

c. the existential vacuum

d. biochemical depression

ANSWERS TO THE SELF-TEST

1-d 2-a 3-d 4-d 5-a 6-b 7-b 8-c 9-a 10-c

ANSWERS TO THE TRUE-OR-FALSE PREVIEW QUIZ

1. False. Biological drives are regulated by a principle known as homeostasis.

2. False. General drives, like biological drives, are inborn.

3. True.

4. False. According to Freud, some motives are unconscious.

5. True.

KEY TERMS

acquired motives

acting out

activity drive

affectional drive

being motivation

biological drives

change of stimulation

cognitive needs

curiosity drive

deficiency motivation

drive reduction theory

emergent

esteem needs

existential vacuum

general drives

hierarchy of needs

homeostasis

infantile autism

intervening variable

love and belongingness needs

motivation

motive

need for achievement

need for affiliation

need for aggression

need for autonomy

need for dominance

need for exhibition

106 PSYCHOLOGY

need for order

need for self-actualization

peak experiences

physiological needs

reaction formation

repression

risk-taking behavior

safety needs

self-esteem

sensory deprivation

social motives

trust versus mistrust

unconscious motives

values

will to meaning

8 Emotions: Riding Life's

Roller Coaster

107

PREVIEW QUIZ

True or False

1. T F The pleasant-unpleasant aspect of emotions is associated with the point

of view, proposed by the philosopher Aristotle, known as hedonism.

2. T F The James-Lange theory proposes that feelings cause our actions.

3. T F Chronic stress appears to have no long-run effect on general health.

4. T F Type A behavior is associated with heart attacks and cardiovascular disease.

5. T F An approach-approach conflict exists when an individual perceives the

same goal in both positive and negative terms.

(Answers can be found on page 118.)

The story of motivation does not begin and end with the motives discussed in

chapter 7. Emotions are also part of the story of motivation. The very word

emotion contains "motion" in it. (Whenever we act we are, so to speak,

in motion.) In this chapter you will find out how emotions can double as

motives and also the way in which emotions add color and dimension to life.

Objectives

After completing this chapter, you will be able to

• define the concept of emotions;

• identify the two basic psychological dimensions of emotions;

• describe the three aspects of all emotions;

• explain the three basic theories of emotions;

• specify how chronic stress affects general health;

• state the conditions of the four basic kinds of psychological conflict.

What would life be like without emotions?

In some ways life would be better. We would not experience the distress associated

with anger, fear, and depression. We would never be in a bad mood. There

would be no unhappiness.

On the other hand, without emotions there would be no joy, laughter, or

excitement. We would never know the pleasure of a good mood. There would be

no happiness.

Emotions give life much of its dimension and depth. Although emotions can

sometimes diminish the quality of existence, they also often enrich life. The ups

and downs associated with our emotional states give life something of the quality

of a roller-coaster ride. Some people live a wild emotional life characterized by

extreme highs and lows. Others lead a more rational emotional life—the highs

and lows are not too extreme. But we all ride life's emotional roller coaster in one

way or another. Consequently, emotions merit study and have an important place

in psychology.

Emotions: What Are They?

The word emotion is a contraction of two words: exit and motion. The ancient Greeks

believed that the smiles and the frowns associated with such states as happiness or

sadness indicated that the soul was coming out of the body and revealing itself. It was

making an "exit motion." This became "e-motion" or simply "emotion."

An emotion is, at the physiological level, a disruption in homeostatic baselines.

There are changes in heart rate, respiration rate, and blood pressure. These

are fluctuations in arousal. At the psychological level, these physiological changes

are experienced as either greater excitement or increased calmness. Human beings

also experience these changes as either pleasant or unpleasant.

(a) The word emotion is a contraction of what two words? and

108 PSYCHOLOGY

(b) An emotion is, at the physiological level, a disruption in baselines.

Answers: (a) Exit; motion; (b) homeostatic.

It is evident from the above that there are two basic psychological dimensions

to emotions: excitement-calm and pleasant-unpleasant. The pleasant-unpleasant

dimension of emotions is identified as hedonic tone. The concept of hedonism,

as presented by the philosopher Aristotle, was a motivational concept.

Hedonism is the point of view that we approach stimulus situations that are pleasant

and avoid situations that are unpleasant.

The two dimensions of emotions generate four categories of emotions: (1)

excitement-pleasant, (2) excitement-unpleasant, (3) calm-pleasant, and (4) calmunpleasant.

All of the many words that we use to describe emotions can be readily

placed in one of these categories. Words such as happy, joy, and ecstasy belong

in category 1. Words such as anger, fear, and rage belong in category 2. Words such

as relaxed, blissful, and tranquil belong in category 3. Words such as sad, melancholy,

and depressed belong in category 4.

(a) What are the two basic psychological dimensions of emotions? and

(b) Proposed by Aristotle, what is the philosophical viewpoint that we approach stimulus situations

that are pleasant and avoid situations that are unpleasant?

Answers: (a)Excitement-calm; pleasant-unpleasant; (b) Hedonism; (c) Four.

Emotions: Riding Life's Roller Coaster 109

Excitement

Calm

Pleasant Unpleasant

Arousal

Hedonic tone

The two basic dimensions of emotions.

There are three aspects to all emotions: (1) cognitive, (2) physiological, and (3)

behavioral. The cognitive aspect of emotions refers to what one is thinking

when one feels an emotion. Thoughts such as "What a wonderful day," "I hate

him," and "I think we're going to crash" are likely to either induce emotional

states or be associated with them.

The physiological aspect of emotions refers to the disruption of homeostatic

baselines. As already indicated, emotions are associated with either increased

or decreased arousal. Fear is associated with increased arousal. Depression is associated

with decreased arousal.

The behavioral aspect of emotions refers to what people do when they feel

an emotion, what actions they take. Fear might induce a person to run away, if possible,

from the stimulus source that is causing fear. If a person can't run, he or she

might shake and tremble. If the fear is being caused by a threat from a menacing person,

one might plead, turn over a purse or wallet, or beg for mercy. On the other

hand, an emotion such as depression might induce a particular person to sit in a chair

and mope. Another person in response to depression might go on an eating binge.

(a) What one is thinking when one feels an emotion is what aspect of emotions?

(b) Disruption of homeostatic baselines refers to what aspect of emotions?

Answers: (a)Cognitive; (b) Physiological; (c) Behavioral.

Theories of Emotion: Explaining the Process

There are three principal theories of emotion that attempt to explain the general

emotional process: (1) the James-Lange theory, (2) the Cannon-Bard theory, and

(3) the cognitive appraisal theory.

The James-Lange theory was proposed independently by two men,

William James in the United States and Carl Lange in Denmark. The theory states

that an emotion can be induced by an action. The following example is based on

observations made by James. Let's say that you see a bear in a forest. Common

sense tells you that if you run away, the action of running is motivated by fear. On

the other hand, according to James, common sense tells only half of the story. It

is equally true that running makes you feel fear. At first presentation this does not

seem reasonable. On the other hand, reflection suggests that the act of running has

the effect of increasing arousal. If you were simply to get up now and run in place

for two or three minutes, you would increase your pulse and heart rate; there

110 PSYCHOLOGY

would be increased arousal. Under the condition of running away from the bear,

the act of running intensifies fear by increasing arousal.

If there is anything to the James-Lange theory, then one can influence one's

feeling to some extent by willing one's actions. The familiar advice to walk, not

run, when there is a fire in a public place conforms to the James-Lange theory. It

is widely recognized that the act of running, by increasing arousal, will cause fear

to escalate into panic.

In the musical play The King and I, Anna's young son confesses to her that

he is afraid to enter Siam. Anna tells him that one of the tricks she uses to conquer

fear is to whistle a happy tune. She says that by acting brave, he might

become as brave as he's making believe he is. Again, the James-Lange theory is

at work. An action is inducing a change in an emotional state. Fear is being

turned into bravery.

(a) The James-Lange theory states that an emotion can be induced by an .

(b) The act of running has the effect of increasing one's state of .

Answers: (a) action; (b) arousal.

The Cannon-Bard theory, also known as the thalamic theory, is based on

the collaboration of the two researchers Walter B. Cannon and Philip Bard. The

Cannon-Bard theory recognizes that the brain's thalamus is a relay station. When

information comes in from the senses and arrives at the thalamus, the information

is simultaneously sent up to the cortex and down to the spinal cord. This means

that we become conscious of the cause of an emotion at the same time that our

body is preparing to deal with it by making changes in physiological arousal.

Returning to the bear-in-the-forest example, the Cannon-Bard theory says

that you are becoming aroused, and physiologically prepared to run, at the same

time that you are able to think, "That's a bear!" This saves the individual precious

time in an emergency.

(a) The Canon-Bard theory is also known as the .

(b) According to the Cannon-Bard theory, when information comes in from the senses and

arrives at the thalamus, the information is sent up to the cortex and down

to the spinal cord.

Answers: (a) thalamic theory; (b) simultaneously.

Proposed by the researcher Stanley Schachter, the cognitive appraisal theory,

also known as the labeling-of-arousal hypothesis, states that a person's

self-labeling of a state of arousal converts that state into a specific emotion. Let's

say that Earl is driving, has taken a wrong turn, and is lost in an unfamiliar area of

Emotions: Riding Life's Roller Coaster 111

a big city. His pulse increases, his mouth feels dry, his muscles increase their tension.

All of this is involuntary. He is experiencing increased arousal. He asks himself,

"What's going on? Why is my pulse faster?" Let's say he thinks, "I'm afraid."

By defining his state of arousal in this way, he clearly feels fear. On the other hand,

let's say that he was to take a different cognitive approach. He's a person who

often seeks adventure. He answers the questions posed above by thinking, "I'm

getting a kick out of this. It's a kind of bang to be challenged." By defining his

state of arousal in terms of a more positive outlook, he might be "having fun"—

a positive emotional state—instead of experiencing fear. The hedonic tone, the

sense that a state of arousal is pleasant or unpleasant, is often associated with the

label that we assign to the state of arousal.

It is not necessary to make a distinct choice among the theories in order to

determine which one is right and which one is wrong. All three theories have

some degree of validity and help us to explain emotional states.

According to the cognitive appraisal theory, a person's of a state of arousal

converts that state into a specific emotion.

Answer: self-labeling.

Stress and Health:Wear and Tear Takes Its Toll

It is widely recognized that increases in arousal tend to be associated with stress. A

formal distinction is made between a stressor and stress. A stressor refers to the

source, or cause, of stress. The loss of a job, an argument with a spouse, a conflict

situation, excessive cold or heat, and a physical threat are examples of stressors.

Stress refers to wear and tear on the body. Chronic stress takes a toll. The body

loses some of its resiliance, its ability to bounce back.

Let's say that you take a small piece of metal and fold it back and forth. A crack

appears in the metal after a number of foldings. Each act of folding is a stressor.

The crack is the stress.

(a) What term is used to refer to the source, or cause, of stress?

(b) What term is used to refer to wear and tear on the body?

Answers: (a) Stressor; (b) Stress.

You will recall from chapter 3 that the Canadian researcher Hans Selye

(1907–1982) did a substantial amount of research on stress. Rats were subjected to

such stressors as excessive cold, excessive heat, and high-pitched whistles. Also,

the stressors were chronic in nature. They became a constant part of the animal's

environment. Under such conditions, the organism is forced to adapt, and Selye

112 PSYCHOLOGY

developed a set of observations about the organism's behavior under such conditions.

This set of observations is called the general adaptation syndrome

(GAS), a pattern that describes how an organism responds under conditions that

induce chronic stress. There are three stages in the general adaptation syndrome:

(1) The alarm reaction, (2) the stage of resistance, and (3) the stage of exhaustion.

The alarm reaction is characterized by an increase in arousal and general

alertness. The pulse and respiration rates increase and the blood vessels of the striated

muscles narrow. The organism prepares itself to deal with a threat. The alarm

reaction is the individual's response to a novel stressor.

(a) What is the name of the pattern that describes how an organism responds under conditions

that induce chronic stress?

(b) The reaction is the individual's response to a novel stressor.

Answers: (a) The general adaptation syndrome; (b) alarm.

The stage of resistance is characterized by reduced agitation and excitement.

This stage represents an organism's response to a stressor that has become

chronic. The individual learns to live with the stressor. During the stage of resistance,

the organism seems to have adapted to adverse conditions. Learning and

reproduction are possible.

The stage of exhaustion is associated with illness and death. The death is a

premature one. Postmortem examinations of rats subjected to chronic stressors

revealed that their adrenal glands were swollen. They had adapted at great physiological

cost. During the stage of resistance, the adrenal glands had pumped out

excessive amounts of their hormones and had overtaxed themselves.

(a) What stage of the general adaptation syndrome is characterized by reduced agitation

and excitement?

(b) What stage of the general adaptation syndrome is characterized by illness and death?

Answers: (a) The stage of resistance; (b) The stage of exhaustion.

The importance of the general adaptation syndrome has not been lost on

physicians and psychologists. Research suggests that human beings, like Selye's

rats, are also subject to the damaging effects of chronic stressors. Research on life

change units and Type A behavior reveal the important role that stress plays in

human illness.

Life change units (LCUs) refers to stressors arising from events in a person's

life that require adaptation. The two researchers who pioneered the general

approach are R. H. Rahe and T. H. Holmes. Studying a large group of subjects,

Emotions: Riding Life's Roller Coaster 113

they developed a measuring device called the Social Readjustment Rating

Scale (SRRS). The scale, based on the perceptions of subjects, assigns weighted

values to life changes. The maximum value is 100, and this is assigned to the

death of a spouse. Getting married has a value of 50. Loss of a job has a value of

47. Being given a traffic ticket has a value of 11. There are a number of similar

items on the scale. If a person collects 150 or more LCUs within a two-year

period, there is a high likelihood that he or she will experience a distinct health

problem.

(a) What is the name of the measuring device that employs life change units (LCUs)?

(b) Too many LCUs accumulated within a relatively brief time span is associated with what

kind of problem?

Answers: (a) The Social Readjustment Rating Scale; (b) A health problem.

The Type A behavior pattern is characterized by hostility and impatience.

Research conducted by the cardiologists Meyer Friedman and Ray H. Rosenman

strongly supports the hypothesis that individuals who display this pattern are more

prone than people in general to heart attacks and cardiovascular disease.

The contrasting pattern is called the Type B behavior pattern, and it is

characterized by an absence of general hostility and a willingness to allow events

to take place at their own rate. As might be expected, individuals who manifest

the Type B pattern are less prone to heart disease than individuals who manifest

the Type A pattern.

The existence of the Type A pattern suggests that behavior can itself be a source

of stress. Human beings are capable of self-induced stress, wear and tear on the

body generated by their own thoughts, choices, attitudes, and actions. The Roman

philosopher Cicero, writing about two thousand years ago, foreshadowed modern

research on stress when he said, "To live long it is necessary to live slowly."

(a) What behavior pattern is characterized by hostility and impatience?

(b) Human beings are capable of stress, wear and tear on the body generated

by their own thoughts, attitudes, and actions.

Answers: (a) The Type A behavior pattern; (b) self-induced.

Conflict: Making Difficult Choices

Conflict is an important source of stress. Psychological conflict exists when

we are forced to make difficult choices in life. According to the social psychologist

Kurt Lewin, there are four basic ways to categorize conflict situations:

114 PSYCHOLOGY

(1) the approach-approach conflict, (2) the avoidance-avoidance conflict, (3) the

approach-avoidance conflict, and (4) the double approach-avoidance conflict.

The approach-approach conflict exists when an individual is presented

with two desirable alternatives, but only one alternative can be obtained. Desirable

alternatives are termed positive goals. A mild example of an approachapproach

conflict is selecting a birthday card for a friend or relative. Let's say that

Olympia is trying to pick a birthday card for her husband. She's narrowed her

options down to two cards, but is having a hard time making a final selection.

She's in an approach-approach conflict.

An approach-approach conflict might seem to induce relatively low stress.

After all, the individual has at least two good choices. But such a conflict can in

some cases induce quite a bit of stress. Eighteen-year-old Kirk has been accepted

at two leading colleges. They are in different parts of the country. The selection

he finally makes will have great long-run significance. He is in an intense

approach-approach conflict.

(a) exists when we are forced to make difficult choices in life.

(b) What kind of conflict exists when an individual is presented with two desirable alternatives,

but only one alternative can be obtained?

Answers: (a) Psychological conflict; (b) An approach-approach conflict; (c) positive.

An avoidance-avoidance conflict exists when the individual wants to

either escape from or avoid two undesirable alternatives. Undesirable alternatives

are termed negative goals. The central problem with this kind of conflict is that

moving away from one negative goal takes one in the direction of the other negative

goal. Nineteen-year-old Nancy is in her first year of college. She doesn't like

academic work, is barely passing, and is thinking of dropping out. On the other

hand, if she drops out, her parents have indicated they won't support her. She'll

have to take a low-paying, unskilled job. If she stays in school, she'll be unhappy.

If she takes a low-paying job, she'll be unhappy. She tells her best friend, "I'm

between a rock and a hard place."

Associated with the research of the anthropologist Gregory Bateson, a term

sometimes used to identify an avoidance-avoidance conflict is a double bind. A

double bind is a no-win situation. Whatever the individual does, there is a sense

of failure or loss.

(a) What kind of conflict exists when the individual wants to escape from or avoid two

undesirable alternatives?

(b) Undesirable alternatives are termed goals.

Answers: (a) An avoidance-avoidance conflict; (b) negative.

Emotions: Riding Life's Roller Coaster 115

An approach-avoidance conflict exists when an individual perceives the

same goal in both positive and negative terms. Glen is in love with Margaret and

is thinking about marrying her. He sees her as beautiful, warm, and sexually desirable.

On the other hand, Glen's parents are opposed to Margaret. They point out

to him that she has a different religious affiliation than that of Glen and his parents.

Margaret takes her religion seriously. So do Glen and his parents. The two

religions are based on different assumptions. Glen's parents tell him that they don't

see how he can ever have a happy marriage with Margaret. If Glen and Margaret

have children, Margaret will want to raise them in her religious tradition. Glen

will want to raise them in his.

When Glen is away from Margaret, he thinks about her constantly. He misses

her, and often decides that he'll propose marriage no matter what the consequences.

When he's actually with her, the words associated with the marriage

proposal won't leave his mouth. He gets cold feet at the last minute. One of the

characteristics of approach-avoidance conflicts is that the approach tendency tends

to gain strength when the positive aspect of the goal seems momentarily out of

reach. Conversely, the avoidance tendency tends to gain strength when in the

presence of the goal; under these conditions the negative factors tend to loom

large.

An individual caught in an approach-avoidance conflict often experiences a

sustained period of emotional conflict before a final decision is made.

(a) What kind of conflict exists when an individual perceives the same goal in both positive

and negative terms?

(b) An approach tendency tends to when the positive aspect of a goal seems

momentarily out of reach.

Answers: (a) An approach-avoidance conflict; (b) gain strength.

A double approach-avoidance conflict exists when an individual simultaneously

perceives two goals in both positive and negative terms. This conflict is a

more complex version of the singular approach-avoidance conflict. Let's say that

Pamela is on a diet. She's having lunch in a restaurant. She is thinking about

ordering either a burger with fries or a salad with broiled chicken. Goal 1, the

burger and fries, is the more appealing choice to Pamela from the point of view

of taste and general appeal. On the other hand, the negative aspect is that the

combination will have too many calories and she'll be cheating on her diet. Goal

2, the salad with broiled chicken, is the more appealing choice to Pamela from the

point of view of caloric content. On the other hand, the negative aspect is that she

is weary of salad and wants to have a treat.

Pamela's dilemma presents a fairly mild version of the double approachavoidance

conflict. However, such conflicts can be quite intense. Imagine that

Glen's parents introduce him to Naomi. She and her parents are recent arrivals in

116 PSYCHOLOGY

the neighborhood, and they practice the same religion as Glen and his parents.

Naomi is young, pretty, and interested in Glen. He takes her out on a couple of

dates. He finds himself attracted to her, but not nearly as attracted as he is to Margaret.

By introducing Glen to Naomi, Glen's parents have thrust him into a double

approach-avoidance conflict.

What kind of a conflict exists when an individual simultaneously perceives two goals in both

positive and negative terms?

Answer: A double approach-avoidance conflict.

SELF-TEST

1. The word emotion is a contraction of the two words

a. evaluation and motor

b. exit and motion

c. emission and movement

d. escape and mobile

2. The two basic psychological dimensions of emotion are

a. excitement-calm and low arousal–high arousal

b. extraversion-introversion and pleasant-unpleasant

c. homeostasis-alpha and homeostasis-beta

d. excitement-calm and pleasant-unpleasant

3. Which one of the following is not a basic aspect of emotions?

a. The cognitive aspect

b. The formal-logical aspect

c. The physiological aspect

d. The behavioral aspect

4. The James-Lange theory of emotion states that

a. emotions are illusions

b. all emotions stem from unconscious motives

c. an emotion can be induced by an action

d. emotions are the motives for almost all actions

5. The cognitive appraisal theory of emotion states that

a. the brain's thalamus is a relay station

b. we become conscious of the cause of an emotion at the same time that

our body is preparing to deal with it

c. emotions are metaphysical concepts

d. a person's self-labeling of a state of arousal converts that state into a specific

emotion

Emotions: Riding Life's Roller Coaster 117

6. Which one of the following is not a stage of the general adaptation syndrome

(GAS)?

a. The alarm reaction

b. The stage of resistance

c. The stage of frustration

d. The stage of exhaustion

7. The concept of life change units (LCU's) is associated with which of the following?

a. The Social Readjustment Scale

b. The Wechsler Psychosocial Stressor Inventory

c. The Lewin Cognitive Test

d. The Selye Stress Test

8. The Type A behavior pattern is characterized by

a. hostility and impatience

b. a hedonistic attitude toward life

c. learned optimism

d. an absence of hostility and a willingness to allow events to take place at

their own pace

9. In the analysis of psychological conflict, undesirable alternatives are termed

a. positive goals

b. negative goals

c. neutral attributes

d. orienting functions

10. What kind of a conflict exists when the individual wants to either escape from

or avoid two undesirable alternatives?

a. An approach-approach conflict

b. An approach-avoidance conflict

c. A double approach-avoidance conflict

d. An avoidance-avoidance conflict

ANSWERS TO THE SELF-TEST

1-b 2-d 3-b 4-c 5-d 6-c 7-a 8-a 9-b 10-d

ANSWERS TO THE TRUE-OR-FALSE PREVIEW QUIZ

1. True.

2. False. The James-Lange theory of emotions proposes that an emotion can be induced by

an action.

118 PSYCHOLOGY

3. False. According to the general adaptation syndrome, chronic stress can have an

adverse effect on general health.

4. True.

5. False. An approach-approach conflict exists when an individual is presented with two

desirable alternatives.

KEY TERMS

Emotions: Riding Life's Roller Coaster 119

alarm reaction

approach-approach conflict

approach-avoidance conflict

avoidance-avoidance conflict

behavioral aspect of emotions

Cannon-Bard theory

cognitive appraisal theory

cognitive aspect of emotions

double approach-avoidance conflict

double bind

emotion

general Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

hedonic tone

hedonism

James-Lange theory

labeling-of-arousal hypothesis

life change units (LCUs)

negative goals

physiological aspect of emotions

positive goals

psychological conflict

self-induced stress

Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)

stage of exhaustion

stage of resistance

stress

stressor

thalamic theory

Type A behavior pattern

Type B behavior pattern

120

PREVIEW QUIZ

True or False

1. T F The philosopher Aristotle said that the human being is the thinking

animal.

2. T F Concepts put the world of experience into mental boxes.

3. T F A heuristic approach to solving a problem is the same thing as using a

formula to solve the problem.

4. T F Functional fixedness is a kind of mental set that helps you to solve

problems.

5. T F The core of the creative process is rational, logical thought.

(Answers can be found on page 135.)

The last chapter made note of the fact that every emotion has a cognitive

aspect. We not only feel, but we also think when we experience an emotion.

In fact, thinking plays a role in almost all of our actions. This chapter

is designed to further your understanding of the thinking process.

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