CHAPTER 11

9 Thinking: Exploring

Mental Life

Thinking: Exploring Mental Life 121

Objectives

After completing this chapter, you will be able to

• define thinking;

• specify three basic kinds of mental concepts;

• describe various strategies for solving problems;

• explain how mental sets can present obstacles to solving problems;

• distinguish between logical thinking and logical errors;

• state the core feature of the creative process.

When you think about a bird, you tend to concentrate on its ability to fly. The

bird could be said to be the "flying animal." When you think about a fish, you

tend to concentrate on its ability to swim. The fish could be said to be the "swimming

animal." Similarly, when you think about human beings, one thing in particular

seems to stand out—our ability to think. The philosopher Aristotle said

that the human being is the thinking animal.

The philosopher René Descartes tried to find a bedrock for his own philosophical

viewpoint. He mistrusted much learning and doubted the truth of much

so-called knowledge. He asked himself what he could be certain of. His answer

was that he was certain he existed. And how was he certain that he existed?

Because he was thinking. He reasoned, "I think, therefore I am." And this became

the starting point for his philosophical reflections.

More recently, William James, the founding personality of a school of psychology

called functionalism, defined psychology as the science of mental life.

And this is close to the commonsense view of psychology. Most people think of

it in this way. It is the science of the mind; and the concept of the mind includes

both our conscious awareness and our ability to think.

(a) The philosopher Aristotle said that the human being is the .

(b) The philosopher Descartes said that the fact that he was a thinking being made him confident

that he .

Answers: (a) thinking animal; (b) existed; (c) science of mental life.

Note in the paragraphs above that not only thinking was implied, but thinking

about thinking. That's what we will be doing in this chapter. The process of

thinking about thinking is called metathought. Although we take for granted

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that we can do it, a moment's reflection suggests how unusual an ability it is.

Even if it is granted, as seems to some degree reasonable, that certain animals

such as dolphins and chimpanzees can think, it is doubtful that they engage in

metathought. They probably don't think, as we do, about the nature of thought

itself.

As indicated above, the study of thinking has a long and respectable tradition

in both philosophy and psychology.

Before we proceed with its study, let's define thinking. Thinking is a mental

process characterized by the use of symbols and concepts to represent both inner

and outer reality. A symbol is a word, mark, sign, drawing, or object that stands

for something else. Consequently, the word dog is a symbol that stands for an

actual dog. Concepts are defined below.

(a) Thinking about thinking is called .

(b) Thinking is a mental process characterized by the use of and

to represent both inner and outer reality.

is called .

Answers: (a) metathought; (b) symbols; concepts; (c) a symbol.

Forming Concepts: Putting the World into Mental Boxes

A concept is a mental category. A basic tool of thought, it is a way in which we

organize and simplify information. Concepts put the world of experience into

mental boxes. Let's say you see a bowl of fruit containing an assortment of

lemons and oranges. You see only two kinds of fruit. You don't feel overwhelmed

by information. However, it is clear that no one lemon is exactly like

any other lemon. And no one orange is exactly like any other orange. The concepts

of lemons and of oranges simplify things for us. The concept of lemons

includes these attributes: a yellow skin, elongated shape, and somewhat sour

taste. The concept of oranges includes these attributes: orange-colored, round,

and sweet. Differences between individual lemons and oranges are obscured

when we employ the two concepts. And this is the functional value of the concepts.

There are three basic kinds of concepts: (1) conjunctive, (2) disjunctive,

and (3) relational.

A conjunctive concept strings together perceived attributes. A conjunction in

grammar has the function of joining words and phrases. Similarly, a conjunctive

concept joins attributes to make a perceptual whole. The concept of a lemon is

conjunctive because to most of us a lemon is an object that has a yellow skin and

an elongated shape and a somewhat sour taste.

Thinking: Exploring Mental Life 123

To a child, forming the concept of a dog, a dog "is" an animal with some or

all of these attributes: it barks and bites and has fur and a tail and four legs.

(a) A concept is a mental .

(b) Concepts help us to organize and simplify .

Answers: (a) category; (b) information; (c) joins; whole.

Note that when a child is acquiring the concept of a dog, there may be a

period of confusion. Let's say that three-year-old Tammy is visiting an aquarium

with her parents. An entertaining show is put on with seals. Tammy calls them

"doggies" because they bark. The parents explain that seals are not dogs. If asked

why, they might answer, "Because they don't have legs the way dogs do."

As is evident from the above, concepts are formed by both positive and negative

exemplars. A positive exemplar is an object or an idea that fits the concept,

that can be contained within it. A negative exemplar is an object or an idea that

does not fit the concept, that cannot be contained within it. For Tammy, her pet

dog at home is a positive exemplar of the concept "dog." The seal at the aquarium

is a negative exemplar of the concept "dog." However, it is a positive exemplar

of the concept "seal" or "aquatic animal." (Without an adjective before it, the

word exemplar means "a typical example.")

(a) An object or idea that fits a given concept, that can be contained within it, is called called

(b) An object or idea that does not fit a given concept, that can not be contained within it,

is called .

Answers: (a) a positive exemplar; (b) a negative exemplar.

A disjunctive concept treats perceived attributes in either-or terms. The

classic example of a disjunctive concept is a strike in baseball. A strike is either a ball

that goes through the strike zone and is not swung at or a ball that is swung at and

missed, even if it's outside of the strike zone. Let's say that forty-year-old Carl

says, "I will drink any kind of wine except muscatel or port." If he refuses a glass

of wine at a friend's house, it is possible to reflect that the host must have offered

Carl either muscatel or port. "Wines that Carl won't drink" is, in this case, a disjunctive

concept.

A relational concept treats perceived attributes in terms of some connection

between objects or ideas such as "more than," "less than," "bigger than," "more

beautiful than," and so forth. A concept such as "cheapskate" is a relational concept.

Nolan is a regular customer for breakfast in a family restaurant in a small

124 PSYCHOLOGY

town. He always leaves a twenty-five-cent tip even though 15 percent of his

breakfast check comes to about one dollar. Ogden is also a regular customer for

breakfast. He always leaves a three-dollar tip. Both Nolan and Ogden are successful

businessmen. The servers in the restaurant refer to Nolan as a "cheapskate" and

to Ogden as a "big spender." The two concepts are relational because they arise

from the fact that Ogden's tip is more than Nolan's.

(a) A disjunctive concept treats perceived attributes in terms.

(b) What kind of a concept treats perceived attributes in terms of some connection between

object or ideas such as "more than," or "less than"?

Answers: (a) either-or; (b) Relational.

Solving Problems: What Is the Square Root of 12?

It is a fair question to ask:Why do we think at all? A good answer to the question

is: One of the reasons we think is in order to solve problems.

Human beings lead complex lives. We have all kinds of problems to solve.

Every day is filled with challenges. And it is necessary to think clearly and effectively

if one is to be successful in meeting the problems and challenges of life.

Two basic ways to solve problems are to employ either (1) algorithms or

(2) heuristic approaches. An algorithm is a formula. If followed carefully, it

will always solve the problem. Formulas in math books are algorithms. So are

recipes in cookbooks and step-by-step instructions for operating a microwave

oven.

Let's say that you are given this problem: What is the square root of 12? You

will probably turn to a calculator. You enter 12, push the square-root button, and

the answer appears on the screen. In a sense, you haven't solved the problem. The

calculator has solved the problem for you. It has the formula built into it. And

even if you have forgotten the formula, it is possible for you to obtain the right

answer. If you don't have a calculator, you can look up the square root in a table

in the appendix of a mathematics book. Again, you are relying on an algorithm

that you may or may not know.

(a) One of the reasons we think is in order to .

(b) A recipe in a cookbook is an example of an .

Answers: (a) solve problems; (b) algorithm.

Let's say that you decide to figure out the square root of 12 without a calculator

or a book. What would you do? Some might remember the formula they

Thinking: Exploring Mental Life 125

were taught in school. They might apply it and obtain the square root. Others

might say, "I forgot the formula. I can't get the answer." This response betrays an

excessive reliance on algorithms to solve math problems. Even if the formula is

forgotten, the problem can be solved.

Solving a problem without a formula involves the use of heuristic

approaches. Heuristic approaches employ principles, rules-of-thumb, and

insights to solve problems. A heuristic approach is based on the attitude "I can

solve this problem even if I can't solve it in an elegant way." Returning to the

search for the square root of 12, it is necessary to ask oneself this question:

"What is a square root?" As most adults know, it is the number that when multiplied

by itself will generate the squared number. For example, 3 × 3 = 9; the

square root of 9 is 3. Once this is clearly seen, it should be possible to discover

the square root of 12 without an algorithm. One can do it by trial and error. Try

multiplying 4 × 4. The product is 16. Obviously the square root of 12 must be

between 3 and 4. It has to be a decimal fraction. Try multiplying 3.5 × 3.5. The

product is 12.25. The answer isn't 12, but it's close. One can close in on the

answer by multiplying numbers somewhat smaller than 3.5. As already noted, a

heuristic approach is not an elegant, efficient way to solve a problem. But it will

get the job done, and should not be scorned. On the contrary, it is often essential

to use heuristic approaches to solve problems when formulas are either not

available or forgotten.

(a) Solving a problem without a formula involves the use of approaches.

(b) Heuristic approaches employ principles, , and insights to solve problems.

Answers: (a) heuristic; (b) rules-of-thumb.

A particular kind of heuristic approach is a means-end analysis. A means-end

analysis is characterized by identifying a goal and then finding a way in which the

goal can be obtained. Questions such as: "Where is this going?" and "How will I

get there?" are associated with a means-end analysis.

For example, let's say that you are buying a home and are told by a broker

that the payments are only $1,200 a month. This sounds good, and you might

sign on the dotted line. Or, you might make a means-end analysis. You ask the

broker, "How long will it take to pay off the house if I stick to the payment

schedule?" You are told it will take thirty years. You reply that you have a goal.

You want to pay off the house in twenty years. The broker explains that if you

will pay $1,400 a month, following a different payment schedule, you can

accomplish your goal. You have now been provided with the means—the

way—to obtain your goal. It is up to you to decide if you can afford the larger

payments.

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What kind of heuristic approach is characterized by identifying a goal and then finding a

way in which the goal can be obtained?

Answer: A means-end analysis.

If possible, it is desirable to be systematic when there is a problem to be

solved. This is particularly true if the problem involves a project that will require

a span of time involving days or even weeks. When an orderly approach to solving

a problem is taken, psychologists have identified five important steps. These

are (1) definition of the problem, (2) preparation, (3) incubation, (4) illumination,

(5) and verification. This general approach can be applied to many problems.

Usually a problem can be stated in question form. Examples include:

"How do I get a weed-free lawn?" "How do you raise a child to have high selfesteem?"

"How do you study effectively for examinations?" and "How do you

lose weight?"

Assume that Laura, a thirty-three-year-old engineer, wife, and mother of two

children, wants to lose some weight. It's a problem because she's been trying to

lose weight off and on for a couple of years without much success. She decides to

use her training as an engineer to solve her problem. So she takes a systematic

approach. First, she defines the problem in a precise way. She decides that she

will stop vaguely saying, "I want to lose some weight." Instead she asks the question,

"How can I lose ten pounds in the next five weeks?"

What is the first step in systematic problem solving?

Answer: Defining the problem.

Second, she prepares to lose weight by gathering information. She obtains

two books on nutrition, a third book on the psychology of weight control, and a

fourth book on breaking habits. She takes notes on key points in the books.

Third, she lets the information incubate before she takes action. She

reflects on what she has learned. She feels a little bit overwhelmed and confused

by contradictory information in the books she has read. She thinks, "I'll just

sleep on all of this stuff for a while and let my subconscious mind bring things

together."

Fourth, illumination arrives in about a week. She feels she has new insights

about weight control. She sees that she needs to stay away from fad diets. She

decides that she has been eating too many refined carbohydrates and excessive

amounts of saturated fat. She writes an eating plan for herself, one that she

believes she can follow.

Fifth, Laura begins to eat in accordance with her plan. She verifies that the

plan is working—or not working—by weighing herself in the morning every

other day.

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(a) What step in systematic problem solving involves reflection on what one has learned?

(b) What step in systematic problem solving is associated with insight?

Answers: (a) Incubation; (b) Illumination.

Obstacles to Solving Problems: Mental Sets Can

Cause Difficulties

The path of problem solving is often a rocky road. There are obstacles that can

interfere with obtaining a solution. Two of the principal obstacles are mental sets

and functional fixedness.

A mental set is a subconscious determining tendency. It is there, a part of our

cognitive processes, but sometimes its content doesn't enter consciousness. In

principle a mental set can either help you solve a problem or interfere with the

discovery of a solution. Of principal interest is the way in which a mental set can

interfere. However, before we proceed, let's first look at the way in which a mental

set can help you solve a problem.

Let's say that you are given ten simple arithmetic problems. You are told to

add and obtain sums. With the first problem or two you are consciously instructing

yourself to add. Perhaps by the third problem you are adding without telling

yourself "I need to add these numbers." The action of obtaining sums is now

determined by a mental set to add. As you can see, this is somewhat helpful. It

gives you less to think about and juggle at a conscious level.

(a) A mental set is a subconscious

(b) In principle a mental set can either help you solve a problem or with the

discovery of a solution.

Answers: (a) determining tendency; (b) interfere.

Here are two problems in which mental sets are likely to interfere with obtaining

a solution. Problem 1:You are an elevator operator in the Empire State Building.

Seven people get on the elevator in the lobby. Four get off at the fifth floor.

Two get on at the twenty-first floor. Three get off at the twenty-seventh floor.

What is the elevator operator's name?

Problem 2: When an airliner crashes on the border between the United States

and Canada where do they bury the survivors?

The answer to Problem 1 is your own name. The problem starts, "You are an

elevator operator . . ." The answer to Problem 2 is that survivors—who are

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alive—are not buried. If you had any difficulty with either problem it is because of

mental sets. In Problem 1 the mental set is that this is an arithmetic problem. In

Problem 2 the mental set is that this is a problem associated with international law.

In both cases a mental set was created by implication, not by an explicit statement.

Consequently, a mental set that interferes with obtaining a solution contains

a false assumption, a belief that is not correct.

A mental set can be given by nature. Consider the Wright brothers attempting

to invent the airplane. They had to break the mental set that wings must flap.

Birds do not have stationary wings like airplanes.

(a) A mental set that interferes with obtaining a solution contains a .

(b) The idea that wings have to flap is an example of a mental set given by .

Answers: (a) false assumption; (b) nature.

Functional fixedness exists when there is a need to use a tool or familiar

object in a novel way and one can't perceive the novel way. Let's say that a carpenter

needs a plumb line in order to erect a perpendicular two-by-four piece of

wood. He or she can't find the line in the tool box. Carpenter A might leave the

job and drive somewhere to obtain a plumb line. Carpenter B might improvise a

plumb line by tying a pair of pliers to the end of a string. Carpenter A, who has

both string and a pair of pliers, is displaying functional fixedness because he or she

can only think of using the pliers for gripping, not as a weight.

Functional fixedness is really a special case of mental set. There is often a mental

set that a tool is designed for one and only one purpose. And this fixes the

user's attention on that and only that particular function of the tool.

exists when there is a need to use a tool in a novel way and one can't perceive

the novel way.

Answer: Functional fixedness.

Logical Thinking: How We Reason

In order to think effectively, it is necessary to think in a logical manner. Logical

thinking is thinking that employs valid reasoning to reach a correct conclusion.

Logical thinking is the foundation of rational thought, thought that fits the real

world and allows us to function well in it. There are two basic kinds of reasoning

involved in logical thinking: inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning.

Inductive reasoning is characterized by making observations and gathering

information until a general conclusion is reached. It is the basic method of science.

About 500 years ago the astronomer Nicholas Copernicus made observa-

Thinking: Exploring Mental Life 129

tions that led him to formulate the heliocentric theory of the solar system. About

150 years ago the botanist Gregor Mendel raised sweet peas, studied the characteristics

of their flowers, and formulated his theory of heredity.

When a detective gathers clues and reaches the conclusion that the butler

murdered the millionaire, the sleuth is using inductive logic. (When Dr. Watson

asks Sherlock Holmes how he reached a conclusion, Holmes answers, "Deduction,

my dear Watson. Merely deduction." Strictly speaking, he was using induction,

not deduction.)

Inductive reasoning also appears frequently in everyday life. Harold makes a

series of observations about his car. It's using too much gas, it's pulling to the left,

it's overheating, it's squeaking too much, and the brakes are mushy. He concludes

that it's overdue for servicing. Or perhaps he concludes that he needs a new car.

Rowena makes a series of observations about her fifteen-year-old daughter, Georgia.

Her grades are falling, she is spending more time than usual talking secretively

on the phone with one of her friends, she is dressing very carefully for school, she

is reading romance novels, and she seems unusually dreamy-eyed. Perhaps

Rowena, using inductive reasoning, reaches the conclusion that Georgia is developing

an interest in adolescent males.

(a) Logical thinking is thinking that employs to reach a correct conclusion.

(b) What kind of reasoning is characterized by making observations and gathering information

until a general conclusion is reached?

Answers: (a) valid reasoning; (b) Inductive reasoning.

Deductive reasoning is reasoning in which a conclusion follows from a

premise. The underlying structure of deductive reasoning is if-then. Such reasoning

allows for predictions, and it is often the next step taken after inductive reasoning

is employed. Sherlock Holmes tells Dr. Watson, "If the butler is really the murderer,

then if we hide in the closet we should see him sneak into Jillian's bedroom

when the clock strikes midnight." Rowena thinks, "If Georgia is getting interested

in boys, then it won't be long before she will be asking me if she can go on a date."

According to Freud, there is a kind of thinking employed at the unconscious

level of the mind that is overly primitive. It is neither inductive nor deductive.

Freud called this kind of thinking predicate thinking. It is also called paleological

thought, meaning "old" thought. It is presumably the kind of thinking used

by primitive, prescientific people and by preschool children. According to Freud,

when two sentences have identical predicates (i.e., "first parts") the objects or people

in the sentences become associated in an illogical manner. Here is an example:

1. Automobile make X is driven by beautiful people.

2. Automobile make X is the kind of car I drive.

3. Therefore I am a beautiful person.

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(a) What kind of reasoning is characterized by a conclusion that follows from a premise?

(b) According to Freud, what kind of thinking is neither inductive nor deductive?

Answers: (a) Deductive reasoning; (b) Predicate thinking (or paleological thought).

Predicate thinking is not the only way in which thinking can be led

astray. Logical errors are common. Such errors include (1) overgeneralization,

(2) false analogy, (3) appeal to authority, (4) arguing in circles, and (5) attack on

character.

Overgeneralization, also known as hasty generalization, takes place

when we reach a conclusion that goes substantially beyond the facts that inspire it.

Nelson owns stock in ten different companies. The prices on two of his stocks

decline by 40 percent. He begins telling friends, "I think there's going to be

another Great Depression." Melinda's husband, Clark, forgets their wedding

anniversary. The next day Melinda is on the phone telling her best friend, "I don't

think Clark loves me anymore."

An analogy consists of the observation that two basically dissimilar things

have some resemblance to each other. A false analogy exists when the comparison

between two things is inappropriate. Books on anatomy and physiology often

point out that the eye is like a camera. The eye has a lens like a camera. The film

in the camera is like the retina; they are both light sensitive. The lens of a camera

produces an inverted image on the film; the lens of the eye produces an inverted

image on the retina. The eye-camera analogy is a useful one. On the other hand,

let's say that Colby, who grew up on a ranch, compares his car to a horse. "The

darn thing gets balky like a horse. Feeding it gas is like feeding a horse hay. It's getting

old the way horses do." However, if one day we hear that Colby in a fit of

anger shot the car because the darn thing refused to run, then we would recognize

that Colby was employing a false analogy.

(a) What kind of logical error takes place when we reach a conclusion that goes substantially

beyond the facts that inspire it?

(b) What kind of a logical error takes place when the comparison between two things is

inappropriate?

Answers: (a) Overgeneralization (or hasty generalization); (b) False analogy.

Appeal to authority is characterized making by a reference to a respected

person, believed to be well informed, when one's own logic or reasoning is weak.

Nadine tells her friend Kitty, who eats no green vegetables, that she should eat more

broccoli, peas, and spinach. Kitty asks, "Why?" Nadine says, "Because Dr. Genius

says so in his book Green Food for a Green Mind." Although Dr. Genius may know

Thinking: Exploring Mental Life 131

what he's talking about, in some cases an authority may be a pseudo-authority or

give bad advice. It would have been far better if Nadine could have answered Kitty

by saying, "Green foods contain folic acid, an important component of good nutrition.

Also, vegetables have a lot of fiber, and this promotes regularity."

Arguing in circles takes place when one's premise contains the conclusion

that one wants to reach. Edgar tells his girlfriend Janet, "I love you." Janet asks,

"Why do you love me?" Edgar says, "I don't know. Just because I do." Janet

presses. "But why do you?" Edgar, sweating and a little confused, says, "Because

you're so lovable!" It would have been a better answer if Edgar could have said,

"Because I like your personality and your sense of humor." Or, "Because you're

more fun to be with than anyone I've ever met." His actual answer, based on a circular

argument, was empty of any real meaning.

Attack on character picks out a negative attribute of another person and

uses this attribute to discredit other aspects of the person's behavior. Kathleen is

thinking about taking her car for repairs to Jake, a local auto mechanic. Mabel, a

friend, tells Kathleen that she shouldn't take her car to Jake. "Why?" asks Kathleen.

"Because I hear he cheats on his wife," says Mabel. Obviously, Jake's marital

behavior has nothing to do with his ability to repair cars.

(a) Making a reference to a respected person, believed to be well informed, when one's own

logic or reasoning is weak is called .

(b) What logical error takes place when one's premise contains the conclusion that one

wants to reach?

Answers: (a) appeal to authority; (b) Arguing in circles; (c) Attack on character.

Creative Thinking: The Importance of Originality

Creative thinking is an important factor in writing poems, books, and songs. It is

also plays an important role in advancing human understanding in fields of study

such as physics, biology, and psychology. Inventions from the airplane to the automobile

have required creative thinking. However, creative thinking should not be

associated only with such exalted areas of activity such as literature, invention, and

science. It is possible to speak of creative cooking, creative gardening, creative

child rearing, creative decorating, and so forth. It is clear that creative thinking

often has a place in everyday life.

The core feature of the creative process is divergent thinking, thinking that

follows new pathways and explores alternative possibilities. Thomas Alva Edison

(1847–1931) provides an example of a person who manifested quite a bit of divergent

thought. When he was a child, one of his teachers thought that he was men-

132 PSYCHOLOGY

tally retarded because his answers to questions were so odd, deviant, and unexpected.

He is well known for improving the electric light bulb. However, he also

invented wax paper and the phonograph. When he died he had patented 1,150

inventions, a record for American inventors that still stands.

Divergent thinking often involves breaking mental sets. The example of the

Wright brothers realizing that wings don't have to flap has already been given.

Divergent thinking also involves combining familiar elements in new combinations.

Dumbo the flying elephant combines the familiar image of an elephant and

its large ears with the also familiar image of a bird flying and flapping its wings.

The cartoon character that results doesn't exist in the real world, but has entertained

both adults and children for years.

(a) The core feature of the creative process is .

(b) Divergent thinking often involves breaking .

Answers: (a) divergent thinking; (b) mental sets; (c) new combinations.

Convergent thinking, in contrast to divergent thinking, follows conventional

thought pathways. It is the core feature in rational thought, thought that

employs both inductive and deductive logic. Intelligence (see chapter 10) requires

convergent thinking. When a student is asked to answer a multiple-choice test, he

or she employs convergent thinking. There is thought to be one and only one best

answer to a given question.

The Gestalt psychologist Max Wertheimer asserted that productive thinking,

high-quality creative thinking, combines both divergent and convergent thinking

in a functional way. Wertheimer and Albert Einstein were personal friends. In his

book Productive Thinking, Wertheimer explores how Einstein arrived at the Special

Theory of Relativity. It is clear that divergent thinking was required, because in the

theory it is possible for space to warp and time to slow down. Both of these concepts

were radical departures from standard concepts of physics held in the early

part of the twentieth century. On the other hand, convergent thinking was also

required, because Einstein employed a large base of theory and knowledge that

made his own theory both reasonable and acceptable to scientists in general.

(a) What kind of thinking follows conventional thought pathways?

(b) Wertheimer said that what kind of thinking combines both divergent and convergent

thinking in a functional way?

Answers: (a) Convergent thinking; (b) Productive thinking.

It is possible to evaluate the quality of creative thinking by three criteria:

Thinking: Exploring Mental Life 133

(1) productivity, (2) originality, and (3) flexibility. Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910),

author of War and Peace and Anna Karenina, is generally thought to be one of the

world's greatest authors. Why? Let's employ the three criteria. First, Tolstoy was

extremely productive. He wrote many books, short stories, and essays. He left

behind a large body of work.

Second, he was highly original. War and Peace broke the ground for a nowfamiliar

kind of book, the war novel. Anna Karenina was one of the first great

romantic tragedies presented in the form of a novel. It pioneered today's tearjerkers

and soap operas. Although the patterns are familiar today, they were highly

original when Tolstoy first presented them. In general, his stories and essays often

presented characters and ideas from unusual perspectives.

Third, Tolstoy was unusually flexible. As already indicated, he expressed his

ideas in several forms. Also, he changed his philosophy of life from an egocentric

one to a selfless one, and wrote extensively about the shift in his viewpoint. As you

can see, Tolstoy receives high marks on all three criteria.

(a) Tolstoy wrote many books, short stories, and essays. This example is associated with what

criterion used to evaluate creative thinking?

(b) Tolstoy's works often presented characters and ideas from unusual perspectives. This example

is associated with what criterion used to evaluate creative thinking?

Answers: (a) Productivity; (b) Originality.

SELF-TEST

1. The process of thinking about thinking is called

a. cognitive existentialism

b. symbolic production

c. functional reflection

d. metathought

2. What kind of a concept strings together perceived attributes?

a. A relational concept

b. A disjunctive concept

c. An iconic concept

d. A conjunctive concept

3. Which of the following identifies an object or an idea that fits a concept, that

can be contained within it?

a. Positive exemplar

b. Negative exemplar

c. Bipolar exemplar

d. Transformational exemplar

134 PSYCHOLOGY

4. Step-by-step instructions for operating a microwave oven provide an example

a. a heuristic approach

b. a means-end analysis

c. an algorithm

d. an insight analysis

5. Let's say you figure out the square root of 12 without a formula. Instead, you

rely on your understanding of the concept of a square root. What kind of a

problem-solving approach are you using?

a. An algorithm

b. A heuristic approach

c. A means-end analysis

d. An operant reflection

6. Which of the following correctly defines a mental set?

a. A conscious conditioned reflex

b. An unconscious wish

c. A subconscious determining tendency

d. A false negative

7. What exists when there is a need to use a tool or familiar object in a novel way

and one can't perceive the novel way?

a. Cognitive slippage

b. Mental facilitation

c. Functional fixedness

d. Transformational perception

8. What kind of reasoning is characterized by making observations and gathering

information until a general conclusion is reached?

a. Inductive reasoning

b. Deductive reasoning

c. If-then reasoning

d. Relational reasoning

9. Deductive reasoning is reasoning in which

a. a premise follows from a conclusion

b. a premise follows from a hyperpremise

c. a conclusion follows from a metaconclusion

d. a conclusion follows from a premise

10. What is the core feature of the creative process?

a. Convergent thinking

b. Divergent thinking

c. Congruent thinking

d. Reliable facts

Thinking: Exploring Mental Life 135

ANSWERS TO THE SELF-TEST

1-d 2-d 3-a 4-c 5-b 6-c 7-c 8-a 9-d 10-b

ANSWERS TO THE TRUE-OR-FALSE PREVIEW QUIZ

1. True.

2. True.

3. False. Heuristic approaches employ principles, rules-of-thumb, and insights to solve

problems.

4. False. It is correct that functional fixedness is a type of mental set. However, functional

fixedness exists when there is a need to use a tool or familiar object in a novel way and

one can't perceive the novel way. Consequently, such fixedness interferes with solving

a problem.

5. False. The core feature of the creative process is divergent thinking.

KEY TERMS

algorithm

analogy

appeal to authority

arguing in circles

attack on character

concept

conjunctive concept

convergent thinking

deductive reasoning

definition of the problem

disjunctive concept

divergent thinking

false analogy

false assumption

flexibility

functional fixedness

hasty generalization

heuristic approaches

illumination

incubation

inductive reasoning

logical thinking

means-end analysis

mental set

metathought

negative exemplar

originality

overgeneralization

paleological thought

positive exemplar

predicate thinking

preparation

productive thinking

productivity

rational thought

relational concept

symbol

thinking

verification

136

PREVIEW QUIZ

True or False

1. T F The concept of intelligence is associated with the ability to think

clearly and to function effectively in the environment.

2. T F The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale is based on the performance

method of measuring intelligence.

3. T F Information, or general knowledge, is not associated with intelligence.

4. T F An intelligence quotient (IQ) score of 100 is evidence of superior

intelligence.

5. T F A valid test is one that measures what it is supposed to measure.

(Answers can be found on page 152.)

Thinking, the subject matter of the previous chapter, plays a significant role

in intelligence. Indeed, as the subtitle of this chapter suggests, rational

thought is at the core of intelligence. We will now examine the concept of

intelligence and the ways in which it can be measured.

10 Intelligence: In Pursuit

of Rational Thought

and Effective Action

Intelligence: In Pursuit of Rational Thought and Effective Action 137

Objectives

After completing this chapter, you will be able to

• define intelligence;

• describe the approach of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale;

• specify key features of the Wechsler Intelligence Scales;

• explain the concept of an intelligence quotient (IQ);

• compare and contrast the concepts of validity and reliability in psychological

testing.

Consider how you might use the word intelligent in a short sentence. Here

are some answers that were obtained from members of an introductory psychology

class:

"I want to marry an intelligent person."

"Is there intelligent life on Earth?"

"I want to raise intelligent children."

"To be intelligent is both a curse and a blessing."

"It's difficult to make intelligent decisions."

"I always have the feeling that that my friends are more intelligent than I am."

"I'm intelligent when it comes to math, but not in my way of relating to other

people."

As you can see from these statements, the concept of intelligence is a pervasive

one entering into most aspects of behavior and life.

Although the concept of intelligence is as familiar, in a way, as an old shoe, it

has a quality of mystery about it. Familiarity should not breed contempt in this

case. We shouldn't be confident that we really understand intelligence until we

explore its more important features.

Intelligence: What Is It?

Intelligence is the global ability of the individual to think clearly and to function

effectively in the environment. This definition of intelligence is based on the

thinking and writing of the clinical psychologist David Wechsler (1896–1981),

author of the widely used Wechsler Intelligence Scales. (There will be more about

the Wechsler Scales later.)

138 PSYCHOLOGY

If we examine the definition clearly, several important points emerge. First,

intelligence is, to some extent, global. This means that it has a general quality that

has an impact on many facets of life. When we think of someone as "smart," we

expect him or her to be a smart businessperson, a smart parent, a smart student,

and so forth. (Subsequently we will reexamine the global, or general, nature of

intelligence and compare it with specific mental abilities.)

Second, intelligence is associated with the ability to think clearly. This means

the ability to use both inductive and deductive logic in an appropriate manner.

The core feature of intelligence, unlike creativity, is the ability to employ convergent

thinking, defined in chapter 9 as the ability to think along conventional

pathways. When a question is asked on an intelligence test, there is only one best

answer. Consequently, intelligence tests measure convergent thinking. When one

learns the basic information associated with a trade or profession, one is required

to learn well-established facts and principles.

(a) Intelligence is the global ability of the individual to think and to function

in the environment.

(b) The core feature of intelligence, unlike creativity, is the ability to employ what kind of

thinking?

Answers: (a) clearly; effectively; (b) Convergent thinking.

Third, intelligence implies the ability to function effectively in the environment. A

person with normal intelligence has survival skills. He or she can get things done

correctly—everything from pumping gas to cooking a meal. The word environment

includes almost any aspect of an individual's surrounding world. Therefore,

it includes the social environment, the world of other people. A person with

normal intelligence is able to get along reasonably well with others.

Note that the definition of intelligence says nothing about heredity and environment.

The concept of intelligence, in and of itself, is a functional one. It refers

to what a person can do. The question of how heredity and environment contribute

to intelligence is, of course, an important one, and is treated in a later section

in this chapter.

Returning to the global aspect of intelligence, in the first decade of the twentieth

century the British researcher Charles Spearman concluded that there is a

general factor running through all aspects of intelligence. He called this general

factor g. Spearman also recognized that there were specific mental abilities,

and he called this factor s.

(a) The word includes almost any aspect of an individual's surrounding world.

(b) The concept of intelligence is a one. It refers to what a person can do.

Intelligence: In Pursuit of Rational Thought and Effective Action 139

intelligence. He called this factor .

Answers: (a) environment; (b) functional; (c) general; g.

Interested in the nature of specific mental abilities, the American researcher

Louis Thurstone made a factor analysis of intelligence tests in the 1930s. Factor

analysis is a mathematical tool that allows a researcher to pull meaningful

clusters out of a set of data. Based on his analysis, Thurstone concluded that

there are at least nine primary mental abilities. These include (1) inductive reasoning,

(2) deductive reasoning, (3) word fluency, (4) speed of perception,

(5) verbal comprehension, (6) verbal fluency, (7) memory, (8) spatial visualization,

and (9) mathematics.

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